Lecideaceae

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Lecideaceae
Lecidea fuscoatra (L.) Ach 271638.jpg
Lecidea fuscoatra is the type species of the type genus of family Lecideaceae.
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Lecanoromycetes
Order: Lecideales
Family: Lecideaceae
Chevall. (1826)
Type genus
Lecidea
Ach. (1803)
Genera

See text

Synonyms [1]
  • Koerberiellaceae Hafellner (1984)
  • Lecidomataceae Hafellner (1984)
  • Mycobilimbiaceae Hafellner (1984)
  • Porpidiaceae Hertel & Hafellner (1984)

The Lecideaceae are a family of lichen-forming fungi in the order Lecideales. It contains about 30 genera and roughly 250 species. A major distinguishing characteristic of the family is the lecanoroid form of the fruiting bodies: typically circular, dark, and without a thalline margin . Most species in the family are lichenised with green algae, although a few species, scattered amongst several genera, are lichenicolous—they live on other lichens. Lecideaceae lichens tend to grow on rocks, wood, and soil. Several Lecideaceae species accelerate the weathering of rock surfaces, a process known as pedogenesis, by extending their hyphae into cracks and expelling rock flakes. This contributes to significantly faster weathering rates in certain environments, impacts various materials from natural rocks to man-made Sekishu roof tiles, and involves key biomolecules identified for survival and biodeterioration, including compounds to withstand intense ultraviolet radiation.

Contents

The largest genus in the family, Lecidea , was once a loosely circumscribed wastebasket taxon containing hundreds of morphologically similar species with generally crustose thalli, photobiont-free apothecial margins and translucent, single-celled ascospores . The overall taxonomy and classification within the family has been made more accurate with recent molecular phylogenetics studies. Two Lecideaceae species have been assessed for the global IUCN Red List.

Systematics

Historical taxonomy

The first member of the present-day Lecideaceae to be formally described was Lichen fusco-ater, later known as Lecidea fuscoatra . [2] The Swedish lichenologist Erik Acharius proposed genus Lecidea in 1803, with Lecidea fuscoatra as the type. [3] This was of several dozen lichen species described by the Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus in his influential 1753 treatise Species Plantarum . [4] The family Lecideaceae was originally proposed by the French botanist François Fulgis Chevallier in his 1826 work Flore générale des environs de Paris; his original spelling of the name was Lecideae. Chevallier's short diagnosis of the family included several characteristics emphasising the form and texture of their reproductive structures and crust. He noted their apothecia (fruiting bodies) to be initially somewhat concave, evolving over time into flat or convex forms that resemble small dishes or patellae, each bordered by a distinct margin. This margin may appear similar to or integrated with a crust, which gradually fades as it ages. Chevallier described the crust itself as membranous, varying from smooth to cracked surfaces, and in some instances, spreading out in a soft, powdery ( leprose - farinaceous ) manner. [5]

In Josef Hafellner's 1984 work Studien in Richtung einer natürlicheren Gliederung der Sammelfamilien Lecanoraceae und Lecideaceae, [6] he used ascus structure as a major systematic character , dividing these two larger families into numerous, smaller families. However, his proposed families (Koerberiellaceae, Lecidomataceae, Mycobilimbiaceae, and Porpidiaceae) have since been folded into Lecidiaceae; [1] later research showed that ascus structure is not a consistent taxonomic character. For example, Buschbom and Mueller showed in 2004 that Porpidiaceae was not monophyletic unless the Lecideaceae was also included, and that the ascus types used to distinguish between the two families turned out to be modifications of the same basic type. [7] This finding was corroborated in 2006 by Miadłikowska and colleagues, who further showed that the family ought to be reclassified from the order Lecanorales to an uncertain (incertae sedis) provisional placement in the subclass Lecanoromycetidae. [8] Early molecular work suggested that the family was monophyletic. [9] [8]

Classification

The conventional classification of lichen-producing fungi has faced challenges due to the reliance on readily observable traits for defining taxonomic groups, which often led to the creation of unnatural groupings of species. An example of this is seen with the genus Lecidea , which by the 1930s, had grown to become one of the largest lichen genera, including around 1200 species. This polyphyletic assemblage of similar-looking species was largely as a result of Alexander Zahlbruckner's multi-volume work Catalogus lichenum universalis, which tended to fit any species with crustose thallus, biatorine or lecideine apothecia and simple ascospores into this wastebasket taxon. [10] However, several studies using morphological and chemical characters demonstrated that Lecidea, in the sense of Zahlbruckner, was polyphyletic. [11] Nearing the end of the twentieth century, researchers had a better idea of the limits of the genus and many taxa were moved to different new and preexisting genera. By 2011, more than 160 genera from various families included species previously classified within Lecidea. [10] In the most recent (2008) edition of the Dictionary of the Fungi, Lecidea was estimated to contain 427 species, although it was acknowledged that only about 100 of these qualified as Lecidea in the strict sense ( sensu stricto ). [12] In this cases, sensu stricto in the sense of Hertel means saxicolous lichens with certain anatomical characters, such as excipulum, paraphyses and apical ascus structures. [10]

The order Lecideales was proposed by Edvard August Vainio in 1934, in the fourth volume of his work Lichenographica Fennica. [13] The order was generally neglected in later classifications as the family was historically classified in the order Lecanorales. The order was resurrected in 2011 by Schmull and colleagues, who redefined the type genus to include only Lecideasensu stricto. They used molecular phylogenetics to show that this group of species, defined by morphology and including the type species ( Lecidea fuscoatra ) and a few Porpidia , species, formed a monophyletic clade. [10] Molecular phylogenetics analysis shows the order Lecideales as a sister group to the Peltigerales. [14]

Etymology

As is standard practice in botanical nomenclature, [15] the name Lecideaceae is based on the name of the type genus, Lecidea , with the ending -aceae indicating the rank of family. The genus name comprises the Greek word λέκος (lékos), meaning "plate" or "small shield", and the suffix "-ídes", indicating similarity. This alludes to the lecideine apothecia, which are usually somewhat circular and lack a thalline margin. [16]

Description

Diagrammatic representation and comparison of cross sections of lecideine (left) and lecanorine (right) apothecia Lecideine-lecanorine apothecia.png
Diagrammatic representation and comparison of cross sections of lecideine (left) and lecanorine (right) apothecia

Family Lecideaceae comprises lichens with a range of growth forms from crust-like (crustose) to scale-like (squamulose). [1] In rare instances, the thallus may be absent. [17] These organisms establish a symbiotic relationship primarily with green algae ( chlorococcoid photobionts), and in some instances (such as in the genus Amygdalaria ), they also engage with cyanobacteria within specialised structures called cephalodia. The reproductive structures (ascomata) of these lichens are typically apothecia, which can either sit prominently on the surface ( sessile ) or be partially embedded ( immersed ) within the thallus. These apothecia may resemble those found in the genera Lecidea and Aspicilia (lecideine or aspicilioid ). [1] Most genera in Lecideaceae have lecideine apothecia; exceptions are Bellemerea, Koerberiella, and Lecaimmeria, which have lecanorine apothecia. [18] The structure and position of the ascocarp in Cyclohymenia epilithica appear to be unique among Lecideaceae: this lichen has a central sterile column surrounded by a ring-shaped hymenium. [19]

Microscopy of cross section of K/I-stained Lecidea uniformis apothecium, showing a proper exciple (translucent), hymenium with asci and paraphyses (blue), hypothecium (red-brown), and a thin, light-coloured band of subhymenium between them Lecidea uniformis (43150730255).jpg
Microscopy of cross section of K/I-stained Lecidea uniformis apothecium, showing a proper exciple (translucent), hymenium with asci and paraphyses (blue), hypothecium (red-brown), and a thin, light-coloured band of subhymenium between them

The internal framework ( hamathecium ) of these reproductive structures is made up of paraphyses, which are sparingly branched and interconnected (anastomosing). These structures are amyloid, and stain blue with iodine. [1] Paraphyses are usually swollen at the tips, and often pigmented. [17] The asci, or spore-bearing cells, are partially split ( semifissitunicate ) and feature an amyloid structure at the tip (apical tholus ) and amyloid walls, housing a pale central area and a darker top or ring-like structure. These asci are club-shaped (clavate) to cylindrical. [1]

Lecideaceae lichens typically produce eight spores per ascus. These ascospores are non-septate, cylindrical to ellipsoid in shape, hyaline, and non-amyoid. The conidiomata of Lecideaceae are in the form of pycnidia ; [1] these structures tend to be dark-walled and immersed in the thallus. [17] The conidia are non-septate and can be cylindrical, rod-shaped ( bacilliform ), or thread-like ( filiform ). [1]

Identifying species within the largest Lecideaceae genus, Lecidea, is challenging due to similarities in morphology, anatomical structures, and chemical compositions with many other genera, especially Lecidella in the family Lecanoraceae, and Porpidia in the Lecideaceae. The main distinctions between Lecidea and Lecidella include Lecidella's typically grey, granular thallus with black, blue-black, or white-grey lower thallus; reproductive structures such as soredia, isidia, and blastidia; common presence of conidiomata; Lecanora -type asci; paraphyses that are not fused and easily dispersed; and secondary metabolites including xanthones, orcinol depsidones, β-orcinol depsides, and triterpenoids. Lecidea and Porpidia, both belonging to the Lecideaceae, differ in that Porpidia has soredia, isidia, and blastidia; conidiomata; Porpidia-type asci apex; spores with a halo; fused and branched paraphyses; and secondary metabolites like confluentic acid, norstictic acid, hypostictic acid, 2'-O-methylmicrophyllinnic acid, and 2'-O-methylperlatolic acid. Due to the subtle morphological differences among these genera, distinguishing them based solely on morphology and chemical components is difficult. [20]

Photobionts

In a 1971 study, Margalith Galun and colleagues examined the mycobiont–photobiont relationship in three Lecidea species ( Lecidea olivacea , Lecidea opaca , and Lecidea decipiens ) by using electron microscopy. The photobionts for the first two are Trebouxia , while it is Myrmecia for the third. They found that the contact between the symbionts ranged from intracellular fungal invasion in the primitively organised thallus to a looser association of wall-to-wall attachment in the more highly differentiated growth forms. [21] Trebouxia arboricola has been identified as a common photobiont in the Lediceaceae. [22]

Chemistry

Secondary metabolites (lichen products) found in Lecideaceae lichens include depsides and depsidones. [1] The main genus Lecidea produces several secondary metabolites: confluentic acid, norstictic acid, hypostictic acid, gyrophoric acid, planaic acid, 2'-O-methylanziaic, 2'-O-methylmicrophyllinnic acid, 2'-O-methylperlatolic acid, and 4'-O-demethylplanaic acid. [20]

In the lichen Lecidea lactea , the depsidone norstictic acid is involved in immobilising copper (Cu), forming a Cu2+–norstictic acid complex. Similarly, psoromic acid, which shares a chemical similarity with norstictic acid, is suggested to sequester Cu2+ through chelation in Lecidea bullata . These species belong to the Lecideion inops alliance, a community of lichen species that are adapted to survive on copper-rich substrates and may show a distinct green colouration in parts of the thallus or apothecia due to copper deposits. [23] A subsequent investigation identified crystals of moolooite, a copper oxalate compound, within Lecidea inops found growing on chalcopyrite ore. This finding confirms the lichen's ability to biomineralise this compound under suitable environmental conditions. [24]

Genera

Immersaria athroocarpa Jymm.jpg
Porpidia albocaerulescens 115962210.jpg
Porpidia crustulata - Flickr - pellaea.jpg
Porpidia flavocaerulescens (Hornem.) Hertel & A.J. Schwab 259698.jpg
Example Lecideaceae members: (clockwise from upper left): Immersaria athroocarpa ; Porpidia albocaerulescens ; P. flavocaerulescens , and P. crustulata .
Lecidea tessellata - Flickr - pellaea.jpg
Lecidea laboriosa - Flickr - pellaea (3).jpg
Lecidea protabacina (30140842458).jpg
Lecidea perlatolica - Flickr - pellaea.jpg
Much of the biodiversity of the Lecideaceae is taken up by genus Lecidea ; examples include (clockwise from upper left): L. tessellata ; L. laboriosa ; L. perlatolica , and L. protabacina .

In the seventh edition (2001) of the Dictionary of the Fungi, Lecideaceae was estimated to contain 9 genera and 441 species; [25] by the next edition (2008), these numbers had changed to 7 genera and 436 species. In this latter work, the largest genus Lecidea was estimated to contain about 427 species, although it was acknowledged that only about 100 of these qualified as Lecidea sensu stricto. [12] According to a 2022 estimate, the Lecideaceae comprise 29 genera and about 260 species. [26] As of February 2024, Species Fungorum (in the Catalogue of Life) accept 29 genera and 244 species in Lecideaceae. [27] Many of these genera are monospecific or small genera, with fewer than five species. [18] The following list indicates the genus name, the taxonomic authority, year of publication, and the number of species: [26]

In 2014, Alan Fryday and Hannes Hertel proposed to reduce the genera Labyrintha and Notolecidea to synonymy with Poeltidea and Poeltiaria respectively. [48]

Several genera once historically classified in the Lecideaceae have since been moved to other families in light of molecular phylogenetic studies. Examples include Bacidia , which was shown to belong in the Ramalinaceae, a family in the Lecanorales. [49] Heppsora was initially proposed for inclusion in the Lecideaceae based on its resemblance to Heppia and Psora , [50] but is now also in the Ramalinaceae. [26] Mycobilimbia is another example of a genus that was until recently placed in Lecideaceae [12] but is now in the Ramalinaceae. [26] In 2013, genus Hypocenomyce , a resident of the Lecideaceae for several decades, was shown to be extremely polyphyletic and split into four genera distributed amongst three families, none of which were Ledideaceae. [51] Roccellinastrum was included in the family following a 1983 emendation of the genus, but is now in the Pilocarpaceae. [26]

Habitat, distribution, and ecology

Lecideaceae lichens usually grow on bark, on soil, and on rocks. Collectively, the family has a cosmopolitan distribution. [1] The family is one of the most common in Antarctic cryptoendolithic communities. [52] Contrary to the typical habitats favoured by other North American species in the Lecideaceae, Cyclohymenia epilithica uniquely thrives in shaded environments in cool, moist, temperate climates. [19] The family has been less well-studied in the Southern Hemisphere in comparison to the Northern Hemisphere. [48]

There are 17 species of lichenicolous (lichen-dwelling) fungi and lichens in the Lecideaceae. These species are distributed amongst the genera Bellemerea, Cecidonia, Immersaria, Lecidea, and Poeltiaria. In some of these cases of lichenicolous lichens, such as Bellemerea cupreoatra and Poeltiaria coromandelica , the juvenile lichen is facultatively lichenicolous but becomes independent as an adult. [53]

Pedogenesis

The dark-colored apothecia of Lecidea auriculata emerge from cracks in the rock. The presence of this lichen hastens rock breakdown (pedogenesis). Lecidea auriculata (178843241).jpg
The dark-colored apothecia of Lecidea auriculata emerge from cracks in the rock. The presence of this lichen hastens rock breakdown (pedogenesis).

Several Lecidea species contribute to the weathering processes on rock surfaces, known as pedogenesis . These saxicolous species extend their hyphae into rock crevices, gradually detaching, incorporating, and expelling rock flakes. Lecidea auriculata , an example of a euendolithic lichen, actively bores into and inhabits the mineral matrix within rocks. In specific arctic alpine environments, surfaces colonized by these lichens weather at rates estimated to be 25–50 times faster than those caused by other natural processes. [54] The weathering impact of Lecidea auriculata on the Little Ice Age moraines of the glacier Storbreen in Jotunheimen, central southern Norway, has been documented. The degradative activity of the species is confined by its ecological range, which is predominantly limited to areas with minimal snow cover. [55] Species of Lecidea have also been observed degrading a variety of substances including granite, [56] Magaliesberg quartzite, [57] serpentinized ultramafic rocks, [58] and volcanic andesite. [59] Research on Lecidea tesselata , found on desert rocks in western North America, identified key biomolecules aiding survival and chemical biodeterioration using Raman spectroscopy. It accumulates calcium oxalate monohydrate, the UV protectant scytonemin, and haematite to withstand high UV radiation levels. [60] In addition to natural materials, Lecidea species affect man-made objects. Sekishu roof tiles are a traditional Japanese housing component that are covered with an opaque reddish brown glaze consisting of an alkali feldspar-type X-ray amorphous glass, a surface that is unlikely to be affected by normal chemical weathering. The tiles tend to get colonised by Lecidea, which, after about 7–10 years, results in the appearance of corrosion pits up to 50 μm deep. [61] [62] Although research on pedogensis often focuses on Lecidea within the family Lecideaceae, similar weathering effects have been documented in the genus Porpidia. [63] [64]

Conservation

Two Lecideaceae species have been assessed for the global IUCN Red List: Lecidea mayeri (data deficient, 2023), [65] and Immersaria fuliginosa (vulnerable, 2020). [66] Lecidea mayeri is classified as data deficient due to the lack of information on its population, habitat, ecology, and potential threats. It is known only from the municipality of Angelópolis in the Antioquia Department in Colombia. More is known about Immersaria fuliginosa, found in two location on the Falkland Islands. It faces several threats that could rapidly lead to its decline and potential extinction, primarily due to its very limited distribution across just two locations with a total area of occupancy of 8 km2 (3.1 sq mi). The main threats include trampling by livestock, fires (both natural and anthropogenic), and the adverse effects of climatic changes, such as decreased summer rainfall and increased sunlight, which could negatively impact its survival. Conservation efforts are needed, including land protection and local education, to mitigate these threats and safeguard the species. [66]

Related Research Articles

<i>Psora</i> Genus of lichens

Psora is a genus of lichen-forming fungi in the family Psoraceae. Members of the genus are commonly called fishscale lichens. Lichens in the genus Psora generally have a squamulose thallus and anthraquinones in the hymenium. Photobiont partners of Psora lichens include members of the green algal genera Asterochloris, Chloroidium, Myrmecia, and Trebouxia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lecanorales</span> Order of fungi

The Lecanorales are an order of mostly lichen-forming fungi belonging to the class Lecanoromycetes in the division Ascomycota. The order contains 26 families, 269 genera, and 5695 species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lecanoraceae</span> Family of lichen-forming fungi

The Lecanoraceae are a family of lichenized fungi in the order Lecanorales. Species of this family have a widespread distribution.

Adelolecia is a genus of crustose lichens in the family Lecanoraceae. The genus was circumscribed by Hannes Hertel and Josef Hafellner in 1984. The genus was formerly classified in the family Ramalinaceae, but molecular phylogenetic analysis showed it to belong to the Lecanoraceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acarosporaceae</span> Family of fungi

The Acarosporaceae are a family of fungi in the order Acarosporales. Members of this family have a widespread distribution, and are mostly lichenized with green algae. According to a 2021 estimate, the family contains 11 genera and about 260 species. The family is characterised by a hamathecium formed of paraphysoids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baeomycetales</span> Order of fungi

The Baeomycetales are an order of mostly lichen-forming fungi in the subclass Ostropomycetidae, in the class Lecanoromycetes. It contains 8 families, 33 genera and about 170 species. As a result of molecular phylogenetics research published in the late 2010s, several orders were folded into the Baeomycetales, resulting in a substantial increase in the number of taxa.

<i>Cladia</i> Genus of lichen-forming fungi

Cladia is a genus of lichen-forming fungi in the family Cladoniaceae. Cladia species have a crustose or squamulose (scaly) primary thallus and a fruticose, secondary thallus, often referred to as pseudopodetium. The type species of the genus, Cladia aggregata, is widely distributed, occurring in South America, South Africa, Australasia and South-East Asia to southern Japan and India. Most of the other species are found in the Southern Hemisphere.

<i>Calvitimela</i> Genus of lichen

Calvitimela is a lichen genus in the family Tephromelataceae. Members of the family Tephromelataceae are crustose lichens with green photobionts and lecideine or lecanorine apothecia. The species in Calvitimela have lecideine apothecia, are saxicolous and are primarily found in alpine to arctic regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fuscideaceae</span> Family of lichen-forming fungi

Fuscideaceae is a family of lichen-forming fungi in the order Umbilicariales. It contains five genera and about 55 species of crustose lichens.

<i>Immersaria</i> Genus of lichen

Immersaria is a genus of lichen-forming fungi in the family Lecideaceae. It has eight species of crustose lichens.

<i>Rhizocarpon</i> Genus of lichens in the family Rhizocarpaceae

Rhizocarpon is a genus of crustose, saxicolous, lecideoid lichens in the family Rhizocarpaceae. The genus is common in arctic-alpine environments, but also occurs throughout temperate, subtropical, and even tropical regions. They are commonly known as map lichens because of the prothallus forming border-like bands between colonies in some species, like the common map lichen.

<i>Hypocenomyce</i> Genus of lichens

Hypocenomyce is a genus of lichen-forming fungi in the family Ophioparmaceae. Species in the genus grow on bark and on wood, especially on burned tree stumps and trunks in coniferous forest. Hypocenomyce lichens are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tephromelataceae</span> Family of lichens in the order Lecanorales

The Tephromelataceae are a family of lichenized fungi in the order Lecanorales. The family was circumscribed by Austrian lichenologist Josef Hafellner in 1984. Tephromelataceae comprises the genera Tephromela, Calvitimela, Mycoblastus and Violella, which together constitute a well-supported monophyletic group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malmideaceae</span> Family of fungi

Malmideaceae is a family of crustose and corticolous lichens in the order Lecanorales. It contains eight genera and about 70 species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trapeliaceae</span> Family of lichens in the order Baeomycetales

Trapeliaceae is a family of lichens in the order Baeomycetales. The family contains 12 genera and about 125 species.

<i>Schaereria</i> Genus of lichen

Schaereria is a genus of lichen-forming fungi. It is the sole genus in the family Schaereriaceae, which itself is the only family in the Schaereriales, an order in the subclass Ostropomycetidae of the class Lecanoromycetes. Most Schaereria species are crustose lichens that live on rocks. Schaereria was first proposed by Gustav Wilhelm Körber in 1855 and was later taken up by other lichenologists despite periods of disuse.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhizocarpales</span> Order of fungi

The Rhizocarpales are an order of lichen-forming fungi in the subclass Lecanoromycetidae of the class Lecanoromycetes. It has two families, Rhizocarpaceae and Sporastatiaceae, which contain mostly crustose lichens.

Phacopsis thallicola is a species of lichenicolous (lichen-dwelling) fungus in the family Parmeliaceae. It was first formally described as a new species in 1852 by Italian botanist Abramo Bartolommeo Massalongo, as Lecidea thallicola. The type specimen, collected from the province of Treviso in Italy, was growing on the foliose lichen Parmelia caperata. Dagmar Triebel and Gerhard Walter Rambold transferred the taxon to the genus Phacopsis in 1988. The known generic hosts of Phacopsis thallicola are all in the Parmeliaceae: Parmotrema, Cetrelia, Flavopunctelia, and Hypotrachyna.

Hannes Hertel is a German botanist and taxonomist and was Director of the State Herbarium in Munich, Germany 1992–2004. His specialist areas are the fungi and lichens.

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  11. ↑ Several studies published in the 1970s and 1980s demonstrated the polyphyletic nature of Zahlbruckner's version of Lecidea, including:
    • Poelt, Josef (1973). "Systematic evaluation of morphological characters". In Ahmadjian, Vernon; Hale, Mason E. (eds.). The Lichens. New York: Academic Press. pp. 91–115. ISBN   978-0-12-044950-7.
    • Hertel, H. (1983). "Über einige aus Lecidea und Melanolecia (Ascomycetes lichenisati) auszuschliessende Arten" [About some species to be excluded from Lecidea and Melanolecia (Ascomycetes lichenisati)]. Mitteilungen aus der Botanischen Staatssammlung München. 19: 441–447.
    • Hertel, H. (1984). Über saxicole, lecideoide Flechten der Subantarktis[On saxicolous, lecideoid lichens of the Subantarctic]. Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia (in German). Vol. 79. J. Cramer. pp. 399–499. ISBN   978-3-7682-5479-3.
    • Rambold, G. (1985). "Lecidea sect. Armeniacae: lecideoide Arten der Flechtengattungen Lecanora und Tephromela (Lecanorales)" [Lecidea section Armeniacae: lecideoid species of the lichen genera Lecanora and Tephromela (Lecanorales)]. Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie (in German). 107: 469–501.
    • Timdal, E. (1987). "Problems of generic delimitation among squamiform members of the Lecideaceae". In Peveling, Elisabeth (ed.). Progress and Problems in Lichenology in the Eighties: proceedings of an international symposium held at the University of Münster, 16.-21.3. 1986. Bibliotheca Lichenologica. Vol. 25. Lubrecht & Cramer. pp. 243–247. ISBN   978-3-443-58004-9.
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  20. 1 2 Jahamate, Aerguli; Abbas, Abudulla (2018). "The research progress of the genus Lecidea and identification of some Lecidea, Lecidella and Porpidia species in many areas". Botanical Research (in Chinese). 7 (2): 93–100.
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  24. ↑ Frank‐Kamenetskaya1, Olga V.; Zelenskaya, Marina S.; Izatulina1, Alina R.; Vereshchagin, Oleg S.; Vlasov, Dmitry Yu.; Himelbrant, Dmitry E.; Pankin, Dmitrii V. (2021). "Copper oxalate formation by lichens and fungi". Scientific Reports. 11: e24329. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-03600-5 . hdl: 11701/38652 .{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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  26. 1 2 3 4 5 Wijayawardene, N.N.; Hyde, K.D.; Dai, D.Q.; Sánchez-García, M.; Goto, B.T.; Saxena, R.K.; et al. (2022). "Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa – 2021". Mycosphere. 13 (1): 53–453. doi: 10.5943/mycosphere/13/1/2 . hdl: 10481/76378 .
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  29. 1 2 Kalb, K. 1984. Lichenes Neotropici. 8: 301–350.
  30. ↑ Clauzade, G.; Roux, C. (1984). "Les genres Aspicilia Massal. et Bellemerea Hafellner & Roux" [The genera Aspicilia Massal. and Bellemerea Hafellner & Roux](PDF). Bulletin de la Société Botanique du Centre-Ouest (in Esperanto). 15: 127–141.
  31. ↑ Fryday, Alan M.; Printzen, Christian; Ekman, Stefan (2014). "Bryobilimbia, a new generic name for Lecidea hypnorum and closely related species". The Lichenologist. 46 (1): 25–37. doi:10.1017/s0024282913000625.
  32. ↑ Brusse, Franklin A. (1994). "A remarkable new lichen genus Catarrhospora (Ascomycotina, Porpidiaceae), from Cape Floral Kingdom, South Africa". Mycotaxon. 52 (2): 501–512.
  33. ↑ Triebel, D.; Rambold, G. (1988). "Cecidonia und Phacopsis (Lecanorales): zwei lichenicole Pilzgattungen mit cecidogenen Arten" [Cecidonia and Phacopsis (Lecanorales): two lichenicolous fungal genera with gall-inducing species]. Nova Hedwigia (in German). 47 (3–4): 279–309.
  34. ↑ Hertel, H. (1983). "Über einige aus Lecidea und Melanolecia (Ascomycetes lichenisati) auszuschliessende Arten" [About some species to be excluded from Lecidea and Melanolecia (Ascomycetes lichenisati)]. Mitteilungen aus der Botanischen Staatssammlung München. 19: 441–447.
  35. 1 2 Rambold, G. (1989). "A Monograph of the Saxicolous Lecideoid Lichens of Australia (excl. Tasmania)". Bibliotheca Lichenologica. 34. Berlin/Stuttgart: J. Cramer: 239. ISBN   978-3-443-58013-1.
  36. ↑ Malcolm, W.M.; Elix, J.A.; Owe-Larsson, B. (1995). "Labyrintha implexa (Porpidiaceae), a new genus and species from New Zealand". The Lichenologist. 27 (4): 241–248. doi:10.1006/lich.1995.0022.
  37. ↑ Hertel, H. (1981). "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Flechtenfamilie Lecideaceae VIII" [Contributions to the knowledge of the lichen family Lecideaceae VIII]. Herzogia (in German). 5 (3–4): 449–463. doi:10.1127/herzogia/5/1981/449.
  38. ↑ Poelt, J.; Vězda, A. (1981). Bestimmungsschlüssel europäischer Flechten. Ergänzungsheft II[Identification key to European lichens. Supplement II]. Bibliotheca Lichenologica (in German). Vol. 16. Vaduz: J. Cramer. p. 364. ISBN   978-3-7682-1162-8.
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  46. ↑ Hertel, H. (1967). Revision einiger calciphiler Formenkreise der Flechtengattung Lecidea[Revision of some calciphilous species groups of the lichen genus Lecidea]. Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia (in German). Vol. 24. J. Cramer. p. 124. ISBN   978-3-768-25424-3.
  47. ↑ Hertel, Hannes. (1983). Lecideaceae exsiccatae, Fascicle V (München): no. 96.
  48. 1 2 Fryday, Alan M.; Hertel, Hannes (2014). "A contribution to the family Lecideaceae s. lat. (Lecanoromycetidae inc. sed. , lichenized Ascomycota) in the southern subpolar region; including eight new species and some revised generic circumscriptions". The Lichenologist. 46 (3): 389–412. doi:10.1017/S0024282913000704.
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  50. ↑ Awasthi, Dharani Dhar; Singh, Krishna Pal (1977). "Heppsora, a new lichen genus from India". The Bryologist. 80 (3): 536–538. doi:10.2307/3242031. JSTOR   3242031.
  51. ↑ Bendiksby, Mika; Timdal, Einar (2013). "Molecular phylogenetics and taxonomy of Hypocenomyce sensu lato (Ascomycota: Lecanoromycetes): Extreme polyphyly and morphological/ecological convergence". Taxon. 62 (5): 940–956. doi:10.12705/625.18.
  52. ↑ Coleine, Claudia; Stajich, Jason E.; Zucconi, Laura; Onofri, Silvano; Pombubpa, Nuttapon; Egidi, Eleonora; Franks, Ashley; Buzzini, Pietro; Selbmann, Laura (2018). "Antarctic cryptoendolithic fungal communities are highly adapted and dominated by Lecanoromycetes and Dothideomycetes". Frontiers in Microbiology. 9: 1–14. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01392 . PMC   6033990 . PMID   30008702.
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  54. ↑ McCarroll, Danny; Viles, Heather (1995). "Rock-weathering by the lichen Lecidea auriculata in an arctic alpine environment". Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 20 (3): 199–206. doi:10.1002/esp.3290200302.
  55. ↑ Matthews, John A.; Owen, Geraint (2008). "Endolithic lichens, rapid biological weathering and Schmidt Hammer r-values on recently exposed rock surfaces: Storbreen glacier foreland, Jotunheimen, Norway". Geografiska Annaler. 90 (4): 287–297. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0459.2008.00346.x. JSTOR   40204904.
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  57. ↑ Cooks, J.; Otto, E. (1990). "The weathering effects of the lichen Lecidea aff. sarcogynoides (Koerb.) on magaliesberg quartzite". Earth Surface Processes and Landforms. 15 (6): 491–500. doi:10.1002/esp.3290150602.
  58. ↑ Favero-Longo, Sergio E.; Castelli, Daniele; Salvadori, Ornella; Belluso, Elena; Piervittori, Rosanna (2005). "Pedogenetic action of the lichens Lecidea atrobrunnea, Rhizocarpon geographicum gr. and Sporastatia testudinea on serpentinized ultramafic rocks in an alpine environment". International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. 56 (1): 17–27. doi:10.1016/j.ibiod.2004.11.006. ISBN   978-90-481-6724-1.
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  60. ↑ Edwards, Howell G.M.; Jorge Villar, Susana E.; Seaward, Mark R.D.; St. Clair, Larry L. (2004). "Raman spectroscopy of rock biodeterioration by the lichen Lecidea tessellata flörke in a desert environment, Utah, USA". In St.Clair, L.L.; Seaward, M.R.D. (eds.). Biodeterioration of Stone Surfaces. Dordrecht: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-2845-8_13.
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