Lychee

Last updated

Lychee
Litchi chinensis fruits.JPG
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Sapindaceae
Tribe: Nephelieae
Genus: Litchi
Sonn.
Species:
L. chinensis
Binomial name
Litchi chinensis
Synonyms [2]
  • Corvinia litschiStadtm. ex P.Willemet
  • Euphoria didymaBlanco
  • Euphoria puniceaLam.
  • Litchi sinensisJ.F.Gmel.
  • Nephelium chinense(Sonn.) Druce
  • Nephelium didymumCraib
  • Scytalia chinensisGaertn.
  • Scytalia squamosaStokes
US: /ˈl/ LEE-chee, UK: /ˈl/ LIE-chee; Litchi chinensis; Chinese: 荔枝 ; pinyin:lìzhī; Jyutping:lai6 zi1; Pe̍h-ōe-jī:nāi-chi) is a monotypic taxon and the sole member in the genus Litchi in the soapberry family, Sapindaceae .

Contents

There are three distinct subspecies of lychee. The most common is the Indochinese lychee found in South China, Malaysia, and northern Vietnam. The other two are the Philippine lychee (locally called alupag or matamata) found only in the Philippines and the Javanese lychee cultivated in Indonesia and Malaysia. [4] [5] The tree has been introduced throughout Southeast Asia and South Asia. [5] Cultivation in China is documented from the 11th century. [4] China is the main producer of lychees, followed by India, Vietnam, other countries in Southeast Asia, other countries in South Asia, Madagascar, and South Africa. A tall evergreen tree, it bears small fleshy sweet fruits. The outside of the fruit is a pink-red, rough-textured soft shell.

Lychee seeds contain methylene cyclopropyl glycine which has caused hypoglycemia associated with outbreaks of encephalopathy in undernourished Indian and Vietnamese children who consumed lychee fruit. [6] [7]

Taxonomy

Pierre Sonnerat's drawing from Voyage aux Indes Orientales et a la Chine (1782) Sonnerat litchi.jpg
Pierre Sonnerat's drawing from Voyage aux Indes Orientales et à la Chine (1782)

Litchi chinensis is the sole member of the genus Litchi in the soapberry family, Sapindaceae. [4]

It was described and named by French naturalist Pierre Sonnerat in his account "Voyage aux Indes Orientales et à la Chine, fait depuis 1774 jusqu'à 1781" (translation: "Voyage to the East Indies and China, made between 1774 and 1781"), which was published in 1782. [8] There are three subspecies, determined by flower arrangement, twig thickness, fruit, and a number of stamens.

Description

L. chinensis tree at Parque Municipal Summit in Panama Lychee (Litchi chinensis)-01.JPG
L. chinensis tree at Parque Municipal Summit in Panama
L. chinensis flowers Litchi chinensis flowers 01.JPG
L. chinensis flowers

Tree

Litchi chinensis is an evergreen tree that is frequently less than 15 m (49 ft) tall, sometimes reaching 28 m (92 ft). [11] Its evergreen leaves, 12.5 to 20 cm (4.9 to 7.9 in) long, are pinnate, having 4 to 8 alternate, elliptic-oblong to lanceolate, abruptly pointed, leaflets,

The bark is grey-black, the branches a brownish-red. Its evergreen leaves are 12.5 to 20 cm (4.9 to 7.9 in) long, with leaflets in two to four pairs. [4] Lychee are similar in foliage to the family Lauraceae, likely due to convergent evolution. They are adapted by developing leaves that repel water, and are called laurophyll or lauroid leaves.

Flowers grow on a terminal inflorescence with many panicles on the current season's growth. The panicles grow in clusters of ten or more, reaching 10 to 40 cm (3.9 to 15.7 in) or longer, holding hundreds of small white, yellow, or green flowers that are distinctively fragrant. [10]

Fruit

Whole and opened fruit with seed Lychee fruits and seed.jpg
Whole and opened fruit with seed

The lychee bears fleshy fruits that mature in 80–112 days depending on climate, location, and cultivar. Fruits vary in shape from round to ovoid to heart-shaped, up to 5 cm long and 4 cm wide (2.0 in × 1.6 in), weighing approximately 20 g. [11] [12]

The thin, tough skin is green when immature, ripening to red or pink-red, and is smooth or covered with small sharp protuberances roughly textured. The rind is inedible but easily removed to expose a layer of translucent white flesh with a floral smell and a sweet flavor. [11] The skin turns brown and dry when left out after harvesting.

The fleshy, edible portion of the fruit is an aril, surrounding one dark brown inedible seed that is 1 to 3.3 cm long and 0.6 to 1.2 cm wide (0.39–1.30 by 0.24–0.47 in). Some cultivars produce a high percentage of fruits with shriveled aborted seeds known as 'chicken tongues'. These fruits typically have a higher price, due to having more edible flesh. [10] Since the floral flavor is lost in the process of canning, the fruit is usually eaten fresh. [11]

History

"Lici Fruit Tree" in Michal Boym's Flora Sinensis (1657) Flora Sinensis - Lychee.JPG
"Lici Fruit Tree" in Michal Boym's Flora Sinensis (1657)

Cultivation of lychee began in the region of southern China, going back to 1059 AD, Malaysia, and northern Vietnam. [4] Unofficial records in China refer to lychee as far back as 2000 BC. [13] Wild trees still grow in parts of southern China and on Hainan Island. The fruit was used as a delicacy in the Chinese Imperial Court. [14]

In the 1st century during the Han dynasty, fresh lychees were a popular tribute item, and in such demand at the Imperial Court that a special courier service with fast horses would bring the fresh fruit from Guangdong. [15] There was great demand for lychee in the Song Dynasty (960-1279), according to Cai Xiang, in his Li chi pu (Treatise on Lychees). It was also the favorite fruit of Emperor Li Longji (Xuanzong)'s favored concubine Yang Yuhuan (Yang Guifei). The emperor had the fruit delivered at great expense to the capital. [11]

The lychee attracted the attention of European travelers, such as the Spanish bishop, explorer, and sinologist Juan González de Mendoza in his History of the great and mighty kingdom of China (1585; English translation 1588), based on the reports of Spanish friars who had visited China in the 1570s gave the fruit high praise: [16]

[T]hey haue a kinde of plummes, that they doo call lechias, that are of an exceeding gallant tast, and neuer hurteth any body, although they shoulde eate a great number of them.

Later the lychee was described and introduced to the West in 1656 by Michal Boym, a Polish Jesuit missionary (at that time Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth). [17]

Lychee trees were introduced to Jamaica by Chinese immigrants in the 18th century, where the fruit is associated with the Chinese Jamaican community. [18] The fruit is featured in a popular Jamaican cake, called lychee cake, which is made of a light sponge cake, cream, and fruit, which has been one of the most popular cakes in Jamaica since its creation by baker Selena Wong in 1988. [18]

Lychee was introduced in the north-western parts of Indian Subcontinent (then British Raj) in 1932 and remained an exotic plant until the 1960s when commercial production began. The crop's production expanded from Begum Kot (Lahore District) in Punjab to Hazara, Haripur, Sialkot and Mirpur Khas.

Double domestication

Genomic studies indicate that the lychee resulted from double domestication by independent cultivation in two different regions of ancient China. [19]

Cultivation and uses

Germinating lychee seed with its main root (about 3 months old) Litchi root.jpg
Germinating lychee seed with its main root (about 3 months old)
A normal-sized seed (left) and a small-sized (Chicken tongue) seed (right) Lychee seed.jpg
A normal-sized seed (left) and a small-sized (Chicken tongue) seed (right)

Lychees are extensively grown in southern China, Taiwan, Vietnam and the rest of tropical Southeast Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, [20] and in tropical regions of many other countries. [4] [20] [21] They require a tropical climate that is frost-free and is not below the temperature of −4 °C (25 °F). [4] [20] Lychees require a climate with high summer heat, rainfall, and humidity, growing optimally on well-drained, slightly acidic soils rich in organic matter and mulch. [4] [20]

Some 200 cultivars exist, with early and late maturing forms suited to warmer and cooler climates, respectively, [4] although mainly eight cultivars are used for commerce in China. [20] They are also grown as an ornamental tree, as well as for their fruit. [4] The most common way of propagating lychee is through a method called air layering or marcotting. Air-layers, or marcotts, are made by cutting a branch of a mature tree, covering the cut with a rooting medium, such as peat or sphagnum moss, then wrapping the medium with polyethylene film and allowing the cut to root. Once significant rooting has occurred, the marcott is cut from the branch and potted. [22]

According to folklore, a lychee tree that is not producing much fruit can be girdled, leading to more fruit production. When the central opening of trees is carried out as part of training and pruning, stereo fruiting can be achieved for higher orchard productivity. [23]

Lychees are commonly sold fresh in Asian markets. [4] [20] The red rind turns dark brown when the fruit is refrigerated, but the taste isn't affected. It is also sold canned year-round. The fruit can be dried with the rind intact, at which point the flesh shrinks and darkens. [11]

Cultivars

There are numerous lychee cultivars, with considerable confusion regarding their naming and identification. The same cultivar grown in different climates can produce very different fruit. Cultivars can also have different synonyms in various parts of the world. Southeast Asian countries, along with Australia, use the original Chinese names for the main cultivars. India grows more than a dozen different cultivars. South Africa grows mainly the "Mauritius" cultivar. Most cultivars grown in the United States were imported from China, except for the "Groff", which was developed in the state of Hawaii. [12]

Different cultivars of lychee are popular in various growing regions and countries. In China, popular cultivars include Sanyuehong, Baitangying, Baila, Muzaffarpur, Samastipur, Shuidong, Feizixiao, Dazou, Heiye, Nuomici, Guiwei, Huaizhi, Lanzhu, and Chenzi. In Vietnam, the most popular cultivar is Vai Thieu Hai Duong. In the US, production is based on several cultivars, including Mauritius, Brewster, and Hak Ip. [10] [24] India grows more than a dozen named cultivars, including Shahi (Highest Pulp %), Dehradun, Early Large Red, Kalkattia and Rose Scented. [12] [25]

The Mauritius cultivar Lychee Mauritius01 Asit.jpg
The Mauritius cultivar

Nutrients

Lychee
Chinese 荔枝
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Lìzhī
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Lihjy
Wade–Giles Li4-chih1
IPA [lî.ʈʂɻ̩́]
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization Laihjī
Jyutping Lai6-zi1
IPA [lɐj˨.tsi˥]
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ Nāi/Lāi-chi
Tâi-lô Nāi/Lāi-tsi
Lychees, raw, 100 g
Litchi chinensis Luc Viatour.jpg
Peeled lychee fruits
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 276 kJ (66 kcal)
16.53 g
Sugars 15.23 g
Dietary fiber 1.3 g
Fat
0.44 g
0.83 g
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins Quantity
%DV
Thiamine (B1)
1%
0.011 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
5%
0.065 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.603 mg
Vitamin B6
6%
0.1 mg
Folate (B9)
4%
14 μg
Vitamin C
79%
71.5 mg
Minerals Quantity
%DV
Calcium
0%
5 mg
Iron
1%
0.13 mg
Magnesium
2%
10 mg
Manganese
2%
0.055 mg
Phosphorus
2%
31 mg
Potassium
6%
171 mg
Sodium
0%
1 mg
Zinc
1%
0.07 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water81.8 g

Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [26] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [27]

Raw lychee fruit is 82% water, 17% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a 100-gram (3.5 oz) reference amount, raw lychee fruit supplies 66 calories of food energy. The raw pulp is rich in vitamin C, having 72 mg per 100 grams – an amount representing 86% of the Daily Value – but contains no other micronutrients in significant content (table).

Phytochemicals

Lychees have moderate amounts of polyphenols, [28] including flavan-3-ol monomers and dimers as major compounds representing about 87% of total polyphenols, which declined in content during storage or browning. [29] Cyanidin-3-glucoside represented 92% of total anthocyanins. [29]

Poisoning

In 1962, it was found that lychee seeds contained methylenecyclopropylglycine (MCPG), a homologue of hypoglycin A, which caused hypoglycemia in human and animal studies. [30] Since the end of the 1990s, unexplained outbreaks of encephalopathy occurred, appearing to affect only children in India [31] (where it is called chamki bukhar), [32] and northern Vietnam (where it was called Ac Mong encephalitis after the Vietnamese word for nightmare) during the lychee harvest season from May to June. [33] [34]

A 2013 investigation by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in India, showed that cases were linked to the consumption of lychee fruit, [35] causing a noninflammatory encephalopathy that mimicked symptoms of Jamaican vomiting sickness. [36] Because low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) of less than 70 mg/dL in the undernourished children on admission was common, and associated with a poorer outcome (44% of all cases were fatal) the CDC identified the illness as a hypoglycemic encephalopathy. [35]

The investigation linked the illness to hypoglycin A and MCPG toxicity, and to malnourished children eating lychees (particularly unripe ones) on an empty stomach. [7]

The CDC report recommended that parents ensure their children limit lychee consumption and have an evening meal, elevating blood glucose levels that may be sufficient to deter illness. [35] [36]

Earlier studies had incorrectly concluded that transmission may occur from direct contact with lychees contaminated by bat saliva, urine, or guano or with other vectors, such as insects found in lychee trees or sand flies, as in the case of Chandipura virus. [33] A 2017 study found that pesticides used in the plantations could be responsible for the encephalitis and deaths of young children in Bangladesh. [37] [38]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kiwifruit</span> Edible berries native to northeast Asia

Kiwifruit or Chinese gooseberry, is the edible berry of several species of woody vines in the genus Actinidia. The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit is oval, about the size of a large hen's egg: 5–8 centimetres in length and 4.5–5.5 cm in diameter. Kiwifruit has a thin, fuzzy, fibrous, tart but edible light brown skin and light green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The fruit has a soft texture with a sweet and unique flavour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mango</span> Species of fruit

A mango is an edible stone fruit produced by the tropical tree Mangifera indica. It originated from the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India. M. indica has been cultivated in South and Southeast Asia since ancient times resulting in two types of modern mango cultivars: the "Indian type" and the "Southeast Asian type". Other species in the genus Mangifera also produce edible fruits that are also called "mangoes", the majority of which are found in the Malesian ecoregion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rambutan</span> Southeast Asian fruit

Rambutan is a medium-sized tropical tree in the family Sapindaceae. The name also refers to the edible fruit produced by this tree. The rambutan is native to Southeast Asia. It is closely related to several other edible tropical fruits, including the lychee, longan, pulasan, and quenepa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longan</span> Species of tropical fruit-bearing tree

Dimocarpus longan, commonly known as the longan and dragon's eye, is a tropical tree species that produces edible fruit. It is one of the better-known tropical members of the soapberry family Sapindaceae, to which the lychee and rambutan also belong. The fruit of the longan is similar to that of the lychee, but is less aromatic in taste.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jujube</span> Species of plant with edible fruit

Jujube, sometimes jujuba, known by the scientific name Ziziphus jujuba and also called red date, Chinese date, and Chinese jujube, is a species in the genus Ziziphus in the buckthorn family Rhamnaceae. It is often confused with the closely related Indian Jujube, Z. mauritiana. The Chinese jujube enjoys a diverse range of climates from temperate to tropical, whereas the Indian jujube is restricted to warmer subtropical and tropical climates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jackfruit</span> Species of plant

The jackfruit is a species of tree in the fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae). The jackfruit is the largest tree fruit, reaching as much as 55 kg in weight, 90 cm in length, and 50 cm in diameter. A mature jackfruit tree produces some 200 fruits per year, with older trees bearing up to 500 fruits in a year. The jackfruit is a multiple fruit composed of hundreds to thousands of individual flowers, and the fleshy petals of the unripe fruit are eaten.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Muzaffarpur</span> City in Bihar, India

Muzaffarpur is a city located in Muzaffarpur district in the Tirhut region of the Indian state of Bihar. It serves as the headquarters of the Tirhut division, the Muzaffarpur district and the Muzaffarpur Railway District. It is the fourth most populous city in Bihar.

<i>Cornus kousa</i> Species of tree commonly known as kousa dogwood

Cornus kousa is a small deciduous tree 8–12 m (26–39 ft) tall, in the flowering plant family Cornaceae. Common names include kousa, kousa dogwood, Chinese dogwood, Korean dogwood, and Japanese dogwood. Synonyms are Benthamia kousa and Cynoxylon kousa. It is a plant native to East Asia including Korea, China and Japan. Widely cultivated as an ornamental, it is naturalized in New York State.

<i>Annona squamosa</i> Species of tree

Annona squamosa is a small, well-branched tree or shrub from the family Annonaceae that bears edible fruits called sugar apples or sweetsops. It tolerates a tropical lowland climate better than its relatives Annona reticulata and Annona cherimola helping make it the most widely cultivated of these species. Annona squamosa is a small, semi-(or late) deciduous, much-branched shrub or small tree 3 to 8 metres tall similar to soursop. It is a native of tropical climate in the Americas and West Indies, and Spanish traders aboard the Manila galleons docking in the Philippines brought it to Asia. In India, it is called sitafal, and in Malaysia it is called buah nona.

<i>Ziziphus mauritiana</i> Species of plant

Ziziphus mauritiana, also known as Indian jujube, Indian plum, Chinese date, Chinee apple, ber and dunks is a tropical fruit tree species belonging to the family Rhamnaceae. It is often confused with the closely related Chinese jujube, but whereas Z. jujuba prefers temperate climates, Z. mauritiana is tropical to subtropical.

<i>Lansium domesticum</i> Species of tree

Lansium domesticum, commonly known as langsat or lanzones (,--) is a species of tree in the family Meliaceae with commercially cultivated edible fruits. The species is native to Southeast Asia, from peninsular Thailand and Malaysia to Indonesia and the Philippines.

<i>Canarium ovatum</i> Species of flowering plant

Canarium ovatum, the pili, is a species of tropical tree belonging to the genus Canarium. It is one of approximately 600 species in the family Burseraceae. C. ovatum are native to the Philippines. They are commercially cultivated in the Philippines for their edible nuts and is believed to be indigenous to that country. The fruit and tree are often vulgarized with the umbrella term of "Java almond" which mixes multiple species of the same genus, Canarium.

<i>Schisandra chinensis</i> Species of flowering plant

Schisandra chinensis, whose fruit is called magnolia berry or five-flavor fruit, is a vine plant native to forests of Northern China, the Russian Far East and Korea. Wild varieties are also found in Japan. It is hardy in USDA Zone 4. The fruits are red berries in dense clusters around 10 centimetres (3.9 in) long.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypoglycin A</span> Chemical compound

Hypoglycin A is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative found in the unripened fruit of the Ackee tree and in the seeds of the box elder tree. It is toxic if ingested, and is the causative agent of Jamaican vomiting sickness. A 2017 Lancet report established a link between the consumption of unripened lychees resulting in hypoglycaemia and death from acute toxic encephalopathy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Durian</span> Fruit with thorn-covered rind

The durian is the edible fruit of several tree species belonging to the genus Durio. There are 30 recognized Durio species, at least nine of which produce edible fruit. Durio zibethinus, native to Borneo and Sumatra, is the only species available on the international market. It has over 300 named varieties in Thailand and 100 in Malaysia as of 1987. Other species are sold in their local regions.

L. chinensis may refer to:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methylene cyclopropyl acetic acid</span> Chemical compound

Methylene cyclopropyl acetic acid (MCPA) is found in lychee seeds and also a toxic metabolite in mammalian digestion after eating hypoglycin, present in the unripe ackee fruit, grown in Jamaica and in Africa. By blocking coenzyme A and carnitine, MPCA causes a decrease in β-oxidation of fatty acids, and hence gluconeogenesis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">China 3 lychee</span> Variety of fruit

China 3 is a variety of lychee fruit, belonging to the family Sapindaceae and tribe Nepheleae. This variety is one of the best grown in Bengal region in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. The trees are only about 5 to 6 m tall with relatively smaller leaves. Bearing is regular if proper management and care is taken, otherwise they show an irregular bearing habit. China-3 was found to perform satisfactorily in other areas, except where rain starts earlier.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2019 Bihar encephalitis outbreak</span> Outbreak of acute encephalitis syndrome in India

In June 2019, an outbreak of acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) occurred in Muzaffarpur and the adjoining districts in Bihar state of India resulting in deaths of more than 150 children, mainly due to hypoglycemia. In subsequent months more cases and deaths were reported. The cause of outbreak is unclear. Malnutrition, climate, hygiene, inadequate health facilities, and lack of awareness are considered as contributing factors. The lychee fruit toxins are also cited as plausible cause of AES.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shahi litchi</span> Variety of lychee fruit

Shahi litchi is a variety of litchi grown in Muzaffarpur district and some neighbouring districts of in the Indian state of Bihar.

References

  1. "Litchi chinensis". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 19 January 2010.
  2. "Litchi chinensis (Thunb.) H.Deane". World Flora Online. World Flora Consortium. 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  3. Also sometimes spelled litchi, liechee, liche, lizhi, li zhi, or lichee.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Morton J (1987). Lychee. In: Fruits of Warm Climates. West Lafayette, Indiana, USA: Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Purdue University, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. pp. 249–259. Retrieved 30 October 2013.
  5. 1 2 "Litchi chinensis Sonn. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science".
  6. Spencer PS, Palmer VS (2017). "The enigma of litchi toxicity: an emerging health concern in southern Asia". The Lancet. Online, 30 January 2017 (4): e383–e384. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30046-3 . PMID   28153516.
  7. 1 2 Aakash Shrivastava, Anil Kumar, Jerry D Thomas, et al. (2017). "Association of acute toxic encephalopathy with lychee consumption in an outbreak in Muzaffarpur, India, 2014: a case-control study". The Lancet. 30 January 2017 (online) (4): e458–e466. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30035-9 . PMID   28153514.
  8. 1 2 Sonnerat, P. (1782) Voyage aux Indes Orientales et à la Chine, fait par ordre du Roi, depuis 1774 jusqu'en 1781. Tome second, p. 230. Paris.
  9. "Litchi chinensis subsp. philippinensis". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Courtney Menzel (2005). Litchi and longan: botany, production and uses. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. p. 26. ISBN   978-0-85199-696-7.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Davidson JL, Davidson A, Saberi H, et al. (2006). The Oxford companion to food. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. p. 467. ISBN   978-0-19-280681-9.
  12. 1 2 3 Hosahalli Ramaswamy, Diane Barrett, Laszlo P. Somogyi (2005). Processing fruits: science and technology. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 687. ISBN   978-0-8493-1478-0.
  13. Andersen, Peter A., Schaffer, Bruce (1994). Handbook of environmental physiology of fruit crops. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 123–140. ISBN   978-0-8493-0179-7.
  14. Bishop K (1997). China's Imperial Way: Retracing an Historical Trade and Communications Route from Beijing to Hong Kong. China Books. p. 17. ISBN   9622175112 . Retrieved 2 January 2020.
  15. Yu Y (2016). Chinese History and Culture. Volume 1, Sixth Century B.C.E. to Seventeenth Century. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 114. ISBN   978-0-231-54201-2. OCLC   933211532.
  16. Juan González de Mendoza, The history of the great and mighty kingdom of China and the situation thereof . English translation by Robert Parke, 1588, in an 1853 reprint by Hakluyt Society. Page 14. The Spanish version (in a 1944 reprint) has lechías.
  17. Kajdański E (1999). "Flora Chin". Michał Boym: ambasador Państwa Środka (in Polish). Warszawa: Książka i Wiedza. p. 183. ISBN   9788305130967.
  18. 1 2 Ganeshram R (2024-06-25). "How a Cake Became a National Obsession". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2024-06-30.
  19. Hu G, Feng J, Xiang X, et al. (January 2022). "Two divergent haplotypes from a highly heterozygous lychee genome suggest independent domestication events for early and late-maturing cultivars". Nature Genetics. 54 (1): 73–83. doi:10.1038/s41588-021-00971-3. ISSN   1546-1718. PMC   8755541 . PMID   34980919.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 SK Mitra (2000). "Overview of lychee production in the Asia-Pacific region". Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Office for Asia and the Pacific. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
  21. Crane JH, Carlos F. Balerdi, Ian Maguire (2008) [1968]. "Lychee growing in the Florida home landscape". University of Florida. Retrieved 30 June 2009.
  22. Menzel C (January 1985). "Propagation of lychee: A review". Scientia Horticulturae. 25 (1): 31–48. doi:10.1016/0304-4238(85)90074-3. ISSN   0304-4238.
  23. "Good management practices in litchi" (PDF). National Research Centre on Litchi, Bihar, India. 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 August 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2016.
  24. Boning CR (2006). Florida's Best Fruiting Plants: Native and Exotic Trees, Shrubs, and Vines. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press, Inc. p. 132.
  25. Kadam, S. S., Salunkhe, D. K. (1995). Handbook of fruit science and technology: production, composition, storage, and processing. New York: M. Dekker. p. 436. ISBN   978-0-8247-9643-3.
  26. United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  27. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, Food and Nutrition Board, et al. (2019). Oria M, Harrison M, Stallings VA (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154. Archived from the original on 2024-05-09. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
  28. Pierre Brat, Stéphane Georgé, Annick Bellamy, et al. (September 2006). "Daily polyphenol intake in France from fruit and vegetables". The Journal of Nutrition. 136 (9): 2368–2373. doi: 10.1093/jn/136.9.2368 . PMID   16920856.
  29. 1 2 Donglin Zhang, Peter C. Quantick, John M. Grigor (2000). "Changes in phenolic compounds in Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) fruit during postharvest storage". Postharvest Biology and Technology. 19 (2): 165–172. doi:10.1016/S0925-5214(00)00084-3.
  30. Gray DO, Fowden L (1962). "Alpha-(Methylenecyclopropyl)glycine from Litchi seeds". The Biochemical Journal. 82 (3): 385–9. doi:10.1042/bj0820385. PMC   1243468 . PMID   13901296.
  31. "Litchi virus kills 8 kids in Malda". Times of India. 8 June 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
  32. Agence France-Presse (13 June 2019). "At least 31 children in India killed by toxin in lychees". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
  33. 1 2 Paireau J, Tuan NH, Lefrançois R, et al. (2012). "Litchi-associated acute encephalitis in children, Northern Vietnam, 2004-2009". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 18 (11): 1817–24. doi:10.3201/eid1811.111761. PMC   3559149 . PMID   23092599.
  34. Singh HP, Babita S. "Lychee production in India". Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
  35. 1 2 3 Shrivastava A, et al. (30 January 2015). "Outbreaks of Unexplained Neurologic Illness — Muzaffarpur, India, 2013–2014". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 64 (3): 49–53. PMC   4584556 . PMID   25632950 . Retrieved 30 Jan 2015.
  36. 1 2 Barry, Ellen (31 January 2017). "Dangerous Fruit: Mystery of Deadly Outbreaks in India Is Solved". New York Times. Retrieved 1 February 2017.
  37. "Pesticides May Have Caused South Asian Children's Sudden Deaths". Voa news. 25 July 2017. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
  38. Mohammed Saiful Islam (2017). "Outbreak of Sudden Death with Acute Encephalitis Syndrome Among Children Associated with Exposure to Lychee Orchards in Northern Bangladesh, 2012". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 97 (3): 949–957. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.16-0856. PMC   5590581 . PMID   28749763.

Further reading