Amazon parrot

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Amazon parrots
Amazona parrots collage.jpg
Collage of four amazon parrots (in clockwise: Blue-fronted parrot, Red-lored parrot, Lilac-crowned parrot and White-fronted parrot).
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Family: Psittacidae
Tribe: Androglossini
Genus: Amazona
Lesson, 1830
Type species
Psittacus farinosus [1]
Boddaert, 1783
Diversity [2]
c. 30 species

Amazon parrots are parrots in the genus Amazona. They are medium-sized, short-tailed parrots native to the Americas, with their range extending from South America to Mexico and the Caribbean. Amazona is one of the 92 genera of parrots that make up the order Psittaciformes and is in the family Psittacidae, one of three families of true parrots. It contains about thirty species. Most amazons are predominantly green, with accenting colors that depend on the species, and they can be quite vivid. They feed primarily on seeds, nuts, and fruits, supplemented by leafy matter.

Contents

Many amazons have the ability to mimic human speech and other sounds. Partly because of this, they are popular as pets or companion parrots, and a small industry has developed in breeding parrots in captivity for this market. This popularity has led to many parrots being taken from the wild to the extent that some species have become threatened. The United States and the European Union have made the capture of wild parrots for the pet trade illegal in an attempt to help protect wild populations. Feral populations of amazons can be found in different parts of the world, including in South Africa, Europe, and major cities in the Americas.

Taxonomy

ChrysotisChloronotaKeulemans.jpg
Festive amazon (Amazona festiva), color illustration by Keulemans, 1891
Jamaican parrot.jpg
Color drawing of an unidentified Jamaican parrot, possibly belonging to this genus, 1764

The genus Amazona was introduced by the French naturalist René Lesson in 1830. [3] The type species was subsequently designated as the mealy amazon (Amazona farinosa) by the Italian zoologist Tommaso Salvadori in 1891. [4] The genus name is a Latinized version of the name Amazone given to them in the 18th century by the Comte de Buffon, who believed they were native to Amazonian jungles. [5]

Amazona contains about thirty species of parrots, such as the Cuban amazon, festive amazon, and red-necked amazon. The taxonomy of the yellow-crowned amazon (Amazona ochrocephala complex) is disputed, with some authorities only listing a single species (A. ochrocephala), while others split it into as many as three species (A. ochrocephala, A. auropalliata and A. oratrix). The split is primarily based on differences related to extension of yellow to the plumage and the colour of bill and legs. Phylogenetic analyses of mtDNA do not support the traditional split. [6]

A 2017 study published by ornithologists Tony Silva, Antonio Guzmán, Adam D. Urantówka and Paweł Mackiewicz proposed a new species from the Yucatán Peninsula area in Mexico called the blue-winged amazon ( Amazona gomezgarzai ). [7] However, subsequent studies question its validity, indicating that these organisms possibly had an artificial hybrid origin. [8]

The yellow-faced parrot (Alipiopsitta xanthops) was traditionally placed within this genus, but recent research has shown that it is more closely related to the short-tailed parrot and species in the genus Pionus , resulting in it being transferred to the monotypic genus Alipiopsitta. [9] [10]

Extinct hypothetical species

Populations of amazon parrots that lived on the Caribbean islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe are now extinct. It is not known if they were distinct species or subspecies, or if they originated from parrots introduced to the islands by humans, so they are regarded as hypothetical extinct species. No evidence of them remains, and their taxonomy may never be established. Populations of several parrot species were described mainly in the unscientific writings of early travelers, and subsequently scientifically described by several naturalists (to have their names linked to the species that they were proposing) mainly in the 20th century, with no more evidence than the earlier observations and without specimens. [11] An illustration of a specimen termed "George Edwards' parrot" has sometimes been considered a possibly distinct, extinct species, but it may also have been a yellow-billed or Cuban amazon with aberrant colouration. [12]

Description

Most amazon parrots are predominantly green, with contrasting colors on parts of the body such as the crown, face and flight feathers; these colours vary by species. [13] : 8  They are medium- to large-sized parrots, measuring between 23–45 cm (9–17+3⁄4 in) long, and have short, rounded tails and wings. They are heavy-billed, and have a distinct notch on the upper mandible and a prominent naked cere [14] [15] : 27  with setae on it. [16] : 21  Male and female amazon parrots are roughly the same size, though males can be larger at times [17] : 6  - most amazon parrots do not show sexual dimorphism, exceptions being the white-fronted amazon, [18] Yucatan amazon [19] and the turquoise-fronted amazon, the latter species being sexually dimorphic when viewed in the ultraviolet spectrum, invisible to humans. [20] They can weigh from 190g to more than 565g. [17] : 6  The average body temperature of an amazon parrot is 41.8 degrees Celsius, or 107.1 degrees Fahrenheit. Their heart rates range from 340 to 600 beats per minute, with 15-45 breaths per minute. [21]

Distribution and habitat

Amazon parrots are native to the Neotropical Americas, ranging from South America to Mexico, and the Caribbean. [22] Outside of their native habitats, more than 14 species of amazon parrots have been observed. In Italy, there are two reproductive populations of Amazona, dating back to their introduction in 1991 to the city of Genoa. The birds are present in Germany, but their status is unclear. They are also found in Spain, where the most common parrot present is the turquoise-fronted amazon. Portugal, California (where the birds were largely introduced during the 20th century), Puerto Rico, South Africa, and the Netherlands have also reported sightings of Amazona parrots. More than 12 species of amazon parrots can be found in the US state of Florida, mostly around the city of Miami. Feral populations are also present in São Paulo, Porto Alegre, Buenos Aires, and Río Cuarto within South America. [23] : 52–56 

Amazon parrots mostly inhabit forests such as scrub forests, palm groves and rainforests, but some prefer drier areas [17] : 12  such as savannas. [21] Vinaceous-breasted amazons are thought to prefer parana pine trees, and have been shown to prefer forest fragments or isolated trees, [24] : 21–22  while Tucumán amazons nest at higher elevations than other amazon parrots, mostly in Blepharocalyx trees, within the cloud-forest. [25] : 398  Yellow-headed amazons nest in the canopy of tall trees, mostly in Astronium graveolens and Enterolobium cyclocarpum . [26]

Behavior

Breeding

The exact breeding age of wild birds is not precisely known. For captive-bred birds, the average breeding age is around four years, with some larger groups like yellow-crowned amazons requiring six years. Captive birds as old as 30 years have laid eggs. [27] Amazon parrots average 5 weeks for nest initiation, with most successful nestings averaging 2.2 fledglings. [28] Amazon parrots mostly breed during late winter and spring, as they are seasonal breeders. [29] : 255  This may happen due to seasonal food availability or a lower chance of flooding, as the period is generally dry. West Indian amazon parrots tend to breed earlier than Mexican amazon parrots, with Mexican amazon parrots having their peak at March to April while West Indian amazon parrots peak in March. [30] : 16 

Captive birds are likelier to be less fertile. A variety of hypotheses to explain the phenomenon have been proposed - Low (1995) suggests that this is because amazon parrots have shorter breeding seasons, while Hagen (1994) suggests that this is because male and female parrots may not be ready for breeding at the same times. [31] : 12 

Feeding

Amazon parrots feed primarily on seeds, nuts, fruits, berries, buds, nectar, and flowers, supplemented by leafy matter. [32] : 43  Their beaks enable them to crack nut shells with ease, and they hold their food with a foot. [17] : 18  In captivity, the birds enjoy vegetables such as squash, boiled potato, peas, beans, and carrots. Mainland amazon parrots forage and then feed their young twice a day (usually one hour after sunrise and one and a half hours before sunset), while West Indian amazon parrots do so 4-5 times. Hypotheses proposed for why this is include the nutritional value of food in the region as well as temperature stress. [30] : 19  During the downtime before foraging expeditions in the afternoon, amazon parrots spend their time preening themselves and their mates. [33] : 22 

Communication and sociality

Amazon parrots mostly communicate vocally. [34] : 150  Species such as orange-winged amazons have nine different recorded vocalizations used in different situations. However, patterns of gestural communication have been observed with the birds, thought to be used to avoid predators. [35] In general, amazon parrots are very social birds in their foraging, roosting, and nesting. Most amazon parrots travel in large groups and have clumped nesting, but the four species in the Lesser Antilles are less social. Theories for why this is include the lack of predation risk. [30] : 15  In captivity, amazon parrots are known for their ability to talk- learning to communicate by mimicking speech and other sounds of human origin. They also appear to have an affinity for human music and singing. [36]

Extensive studies of vocal behavior in wild yellow-naped amazons show the presence of vocal dialects, [37] in which the repertoire of calls that parrots vocalize change at discrete geographic boundaries, similar to how humans have different languages or dialects. Dialects are stable over long periods of time [38] and are meaningful to the parrots; they are less responsive to calls that are not their own dialect. [39]

Conservation status

As of June 2020, 58% (18 out of 31) of species were listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as threatened or extinct in the wild. The most common threats are habitat loss, persecution, the pet trade, [40] and the introduction of other species. [30] : 14  The Puerto Rican amazon is critically endangered. 15 species are on Appendix 1 of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, while 16 are on Appendix 2. [10] : 421  In the case of illegal smuggling of amazon parrots, some smugglers bleach the heads of green-headed parrots to make them look yellow and sell them off as young amazon parrots, which can cause dermatitis. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the United States Department of Agriculture sometimes confiscate and quarantine parrots for Newcastle disease and then auction them off. [29] : 255 

The Puerto Rican parrot in particular, as a critically endangered species, has seen considerable conservation efforts, including but not limited to changes in land management, legal protection, research, and increasing nesting success. [41] : 18–21  However, these efforts were significantly hindered by natural events such as Hurricane Hugo, which affected the Luquillo forest in which most Puerto Rican parrots were living. [42] : 70 

Within the rest of the West Indies, the four species of amazon parrots in the Lesser Antilles have seen successful attempts at increasing their population. In the Greater Antilles, the population of amazon parrots has been stable. The Cuban amazon has seen greatly successful conservation efforts and as a result has experienced a large increase in its population. [43] : 94 

Aviculture

A. pretrei in a cage. Amazona pretrei -bird cage-8c.jpg
A. pretrei in a cage.

Low (2005) describes adaptability and joyfulness as the special positive attributes of the genus from an avicultural perspective. [32] : 11  The yellow-headed amazon, yellow-naped amazon, and turquoise-fronted amazon are some of the species which are commonly kept as pets. [29] : 255  They can live for 30 to 50 years, [13] : 8  with one report of a yellow-crowned amazon living for 56 years in captivity. [44] However, some amazons can have hormonally-induced aggressiveness and attack their owners, which has led to owners seeking behavior modification for their parrots. [29] : 255  On the other hand, unlike many other amazon species, the lilacine amazon and mealy amazon are said to possess gentle, easy-going and affectionate temperaments. [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] To maintain health and happiness, pet parrots require much more training than domesticated animals such as dogs or even cats. They require understanding, manipulative toys, and rewards for good pet-like behavior, or they can develop quite aggressive behaviors (particularly male birds), which can be clearly observed through the bird's body language - pinning the eyes, flaring the tail, raising the head and neck feathers and engaging in a "macho strut". They have a strong, innate need to chew; thus, they require safe, destructible toys. [36] One of the main problems amazon parrots face in captivity is obesity, which can be avoided with the correct diet and exercise. [29] : 255  Within captivity, it is recommended to feed amazon parrots a variety of food, mostly consisting of pelleted food. Seeds should never be used as a whole diet and should be used as part of a balanced diet, balanced with food such as fresh fruit (except avocado, which is toxic to parrots) and vegetables, with nuts and seed provided only in moderation. [50] Amazon parrots should also be given opportunities to forage for food instead of simply being given it, as they are motivated to forage even when an easier alternative is available. [51] : 184 

Amazon parrots should be given a dark and quiet sleeping area. It is recommended to give the bird either downtime and naps or to keep them in total darkness for 12 hours so they can rest. Parrots also need to be bathed or sprayed with water once every week to allow for bathing behaviors. [51] : 185 

Trade

Amazon parrots are traded and exploited as pets. [52] : 69  Archeological evidence shows that the parrot trade has existed in South America since pre-Columbian times, with mummified parrots (including amazon species) being found in the Atacama Desert region of Chile. [53] The most traded species of amazons are blue-fronted amazons and yellow-crowned/yellow-headed amazons. A 1992 ban on wild bird trade by the US led to a sharp drop in the trade and a diversion of 66% of it to the European Union, and a further EU ban on the trade in 2005 led to another drop. Between 1980 and 2013, 372,988 amazon parrots were traded. Some illegal trade still occurs between Mexico and the United States. [23] : 58  [29] : 255 

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-naped amazon</span> Species of bird

The yellow-naped amazon or yellow-naped parrot is a widespread amazon parrot sometimes considered to be a subspecies of the yellow-crowned amazon. It inhabits the Pacific coast of southern Mexico and Central America. It has been recently been reclassified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red List due to a dramatic decline across the extent of its range. Yellow-naped amazons have lost more than 92% of their population over the last three generations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-shouldered amazon</span> Species of bird

The yellow-shouldered amazon, also known as the yellow-shouldered parrot, is a parrot of the genus Amazona that is found in the arid areas of northern Venezuela, the Venezuelan islands of Margarita and La Blanquilla, and the island of Bonaire. It has been extirpated from and reintroduced to Aruba and introduced to Curaçao.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-necked amazon</span> Species of bird

The red-necked amazon, also known as the red-necked parrot, Dominican blue-faced amazon, lesser Dominican amazon, and jaco parrot or jaco, is an amazon parrot endemic to Dominica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern mealy amazon</span> Species of bird

The southern mealy amazon or southern mealy parrot is among the largest parrots in the genus Amazona, the amazon parrots. It is a mainly green parrot with a total length of 38–41 cm (15–16 in). It is native to tropical Central and South America. This parrot and the northern mealy amazon are considered conspecific.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cuban amazon</span> Species of bird

The Cuban amazon, also known as the Cuban parrot and the rose-throated parrot, is a medium-sized mainly green parrot found in woodlands and dry forests of Cuba, the Bahamas and Cayman Islands in the Caribbean. Although they have been observed in the wild in Puerto Rico, they are probably the result of escaped pets, and no reproduction has been recorded.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-headed amazon</span> Subspecies of Amazon Parrot

The yellow-headed amazon, also known as the yellow-headed parrot and double yellow-headed amazon, is an endangered amazon parrot of Mexico and northern Central America. Measuring 38–43 centimetres (15–17 in) in length, it is a stocky short-tailed green parrot with a yellow head. It prefers to live in mangrove forests or forests near rivers or other bodies of water. It is sometimes considered a subspecies of the yellow-crowned amazon. It is a popular pet and an excellent talker. Poaching for the international pet trade has driven the species to near-extinction in the wild; around half of all wild-caught birds are thought to die in the process.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Imperial amazon</span> Species of rare bird in the Caribbean

The imperial amazon or Dominican amazon, also known as the sisserou or sisserou parrot, is a parrot found only on the Caribbean island of Dominica. It has been designated as the national bird of Dominica, and features on the national flag of Dominica. The species is critically endangered. In 2019, it was estimated there were only about 50 mature individuals left in the wild.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-crowned amazon</span> Species of bird

The yellow-crowned amazon or yellow-crowned parrot is a species of parrot native to tropical South America, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean. The taxonomy is highly complex and the yellow-headed and yellow-naped amazon are sometimes considered subspecies of the yellow-crowned amazon. Except in the taxonomic section, the following deals only with the nominate group .They are found in the Amazon basin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-tailed amazon</span> Species of bird

The red-tailed amazon, also known as the red-tailed parrot, is a species of parrot in the family Psittacidae. It is endemic to coastal regions in the south-east Brazilian states of São Paulo and Paraná. The bird has been threatened by habitat loss and capture for the wild bird trade, and is a symbol of the efforts to conserve one of the Earth's most biologically diverse ecosystems. Consequently, it is considered Near Threatened by BirdLife International and the IUCN. In 1991–92, the population had fallen below 2000 individuals. Following on-going conservation efforts, a count and estimate from 2015 suggests a population of 9,000–10,000, indicating that this species is recovering from earlier persecution. A recent study shows that the population of this species is stable at Paraná state, Southern Brazil, revealing population trend fluctuation during the last 12 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-billed amazon</span> Species of bird

The yellow-billed amazon, also called the yellow-billed parrot or Jamaican amazon, is a species of parrot in the family Psittacidae. It is a predominantly green parrot with a short tail and pink throat and neck. It is endemic to Jamaica, where its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical mangrove forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, plantations, and rural gardens. It is threatened by habitat loss and illegal trapping of wild birds for the pet trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kawall's amazon</span> Species of bird

Kawall's amazon, also known as the white-faced amazon, white-cheeked amazon or Kawall's parrot, is a relatively large species of parrot in the family Psittacidae. It is endemic to the south-central Amazon. After not having been recorded in the wild for around 70 years, the species was rediscovered in the 1980s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scaly-naped amazon</span> Species of bird

The scaly-naped amazon, also known as the scaly-naped parrot, mercenary amazon, Tschudi's amazon, mountain parrot, or gray-naped amazon is a species of parrot in the family Psittacidae. It is found along the Andes in the northern part of South America. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest and subtropical or tropical moist montane forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-spectacled amazon</span> Species of bird

The red-spectacled amazon is a species of parrot in the family Psittacidae. It is found in Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-browed amazon</span> Species of bird

The red-browed amazon is a species of parrot in the family Psittacidae. It is endemic to Atlantic Forest in eastern Brazil. It has been considered a subspecies of the blue-cheeked amazon, but today all major authorities consider them separate species. It is threatened both by habitat loss and by being captured for the trade in wild parrots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tucumán amazon</span> Species of bird

The Tucumán amazon, also known as the Tucumán parrot, alder amazon, or alder parrot, is a vulnerable species of bird in subfamily Arinae of the family Psittacidae, the African and New World parrots. It is found in Argentina and Bolivia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parrot</span> Order of birds

Parrots (Psittaciformes), also known as psittacines, are birds with a strong curved beak, upright stance, and clawed feet. They are classified in four families that contain roughly 410 species in 101 genera, found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The four families are the Psittaculidae, Psittacidae, Cacatuoidea (cockatoos), and Strigopidae. One-third of all parrot species are threatened by extinction, with a higher aggregate extinction risk than any other comparable bird group. Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Panama amazon</span> Subspecies of bird

The Panama amazon, also known as the Panama yellow-headed amazon, is a subspecies of the yellow-crowned amazon, and is endemic to Panama and northwest Colombia. In aviculture, it is sometimes listed as a separate species, and this is potentially correct; at least as a phylogenetic species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mealy amazon</span> Species of bird

The mealy amazon or mealy parrot is among the largest parrots in the genus Amazona, the amazon parrots. It is a mainly green parrot with a total length of 38–41 cm (15–16 in). It is native to tropical Central and South America. This species, the southern mealy amazon, the northern mealy amazon are considered conspecific.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern mealy amazon</span> Species of bird

The northern mealy amazon or northern mealy parrot is among the largest parrots in the genus Amazona, the amazon parrots. It is a mainly green parrot with a total length of 38–41 cm (15–16 in). It is endemic to tropical Central America. This parrot and the southern mealy amazon are conspecific, having previously been considered separate species.

References

  1. ↑ "Psittacidae". aviansystematics.org. The Trust for Avian Systematics. Retrieved 2023-07-24.
  2. ↑ ITIS standard report page: Amazona Archived 2004-10-17 at the Wayback Machine record last updated 1998 (URL accessed May 22, 2006)
  3. ↑ Lesson, René (1831). Traité d'Ornithologie, ou Tableau Méthodique (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: F.G. Levrault. p. 189. Archived from the original on 2019-08-12. Retrieved 2019-08-12.
  4. ↑ Salvadori, Tommaso (1891). Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum. Vol. 20. London: British Museum. p. 268. Archived from the original on 2019-08-12. Retrieved 2019-08-12.
  5. ↑ Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p.  44. ISBN   978-1-4081-2501-4.
  6. ↑ Eberhard, J.; Bermingham, E. (2004). "Phylogeny and biogeography of the Amazona ochrocephala (Aves: Psittacidae) complex". The Auk. 121 (2): 318–332. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0318:PABOTA]2.0.CO;2. S2CID   21874362.
  7. ↑ Silva, Tony; Guzmán, Antonio; Urantówka, Adam D; Mackiewicz, Paweł (June 27, 2017). "A new parrot taxon from the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico—its position within genus Amazona based on morphology and molecular phylogeny". PeerJ. 4420 (1): 139–147. doi: 10.7717/peerj.3475 . PMC   5490482 . PMID   28674651.
  8. ↑ Escalante, Patricia; Arteaga-Rojas, Abigail Eunice; Gutiérrez-Sánchez-Rüed, Mauricio (2018). "A new species of Mexican parrot? Reasonable doubt on the status of Amazona gomezgarzai (Psittaciformes: Psittacidae)". Zootaxa. 4420 (1): 139–147. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4420.1.9. PMID   30313559.
  9. ↑ Duarte, J.M.B.; Caparroz, R. (1995). "Cytotaxonomic analysis of Brazilian species of the genus Amazona (Psittacidae, Aves) and confirmation of the genus Salvatoria (Ribeiro, 1920)". Brazilian Journal of Genetics. 18: 623–628. hdl: 11449/34543 .
  10. 1 2 Russello, M.A.; Amato, G. (2004). "A molecular phylogeny of Amazona: implications for Neotropical parrot biogeography, taxonomy, and conservation". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 30 (2): 421–437. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00192-1. PMID   14715233.
  11. 1 2 3 Fuller, Errol (1987). Extinct Birds. Penguin Books (England). p. 131. ISBN   0-670-81787-2.
  12. ↑ Hume, J. P.; van Grouw, H. (2014). "Colour aberrations in extinct and endangered birds". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. 134: 168–193.
  13. 1 2 Teitler, Risa (1989). Taming and Training Amazon Parrots. T.F.H. Publications. ISBN   978-0-86622-952-4. Archived from the original on 2021-07-20. Retrieved 2021-07-16.
  14. ↑ Urantówka, A. D.; MacKiewicz, P.; Strzała, T. (2014). "Phylogeny of Amazona barbadensis and the Yellow-Headed Amazon Complex (Aves: Psittacidae): A New Look at South American Parrot Evolution". PLOS ONE. 9 (5): e97228. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...997228U. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097228 . PMC   4019560 . PMID   24823658.
  15. ↑ Ottens-Wainright, Patricia; Halanych, Kenneth M.; Eberhard, Jessica R.; Burke, Rachel I.; Wiley, James W.; Gnam, Rosemarie S.; Aqualera, Xiomara Gálvez (2004). "Independent geographic origins of the genus Amazona in the West Indies". Journal of Caribbean Ornithology. 17: 23–49. ISSN   1544-4953. Archived from the original on 2021-07-16. Retrieved 2021-07-16.
  16. ↑ Schmidt, Robert E.; Reavill, Drury R.; Phalen, David N. (6 July 2015). Pathology of Pet and Aviary Birds. Wiley. ISBN   978-1-118-82811-3. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Gerholdt, James E. (1997). Amazon Parrots. Abdo & Daughters. ISBN   978-1-56239-587-2. Archived from the original on 2021-07-20. Retrieved 2021-07-16.
  18. ↑ "WHITE-FRONTED AMAZON (Amazona albifrons)". World Parrot Trust. Archived from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
  19. ↑ "YELLOW-LORED AMAZON (Amazona xantholora)". World Parrot Trust. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
  20. ↑ Santos, Susana I. C. O.; Elward, Brian; Lumeij, Johannes T. (2006). "Sexual Dichromatism in the Blue-Fronted Amazon Parrot (Amazona aestiva) Revealed by Multiple-Angle Spectrometry". Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery. 20 (1): 8–14. doi:10.1647/1082-6742(2006)20[8:SDITBA]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR   40236514. S2CID   17124101. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
  21. 1 2 Pollock, Christal (28 September 2014). "Basic Information Sheet: Amazon Parrot". LafeberVet. Archived from the original on 2021-03-06. Retrieved 2021-07-25.
  22. ↑ Alderton, David (2003). The Complete Book of Birds. Hermes House. ISBN   978-1-84309-445-6. Archived from the original on 2021-07-16. Retrieved 2021-07-16.
  23. 1 2 Mori, E.; Grandi, G.; Menchetti, M.; Tella, J. L.; Jackson, Hazel A.; Reino, Luis; van Kleunen, André; Figueira, Rui; Ancillotto, Leonardo (2017). "Worldwide distribution of non–native Amazon parrots and temporal trends of their global trade". Animal Biodiversity and Conservation. 40 (1): 49–62. doi:10.32800/abc.2017.40.0049. hdl: 10261/142842 . Archived from the original on 2020-11-26. Retrieved 2021-07-16.
  24. ↑ Cockle, Kristina; Capuzzi, Gabriel; Bodrati, Alejandro; Clay, Rob; del Castillo, Hugo; Velázquez, Myriam; Areta, Juan I.; Fariña, Nestor; Fariña, Rodrigo (2007). "Distribution, abundance, and conservation of Vinaceous Amazons (Amazona vinacea) in Argentina and Paraguay". Journal of Field Ornithology. 78 (1): 21–39. doi:10.1111/j.1557-9263.2006.00082.x. hdl: 11336/80780 . Archived from the original on 2021-07-25. Retrieved 2021-07-25.
  25. ↑ Rivera, Luis; Politi, Natalia; Bucher, Enrique H. (2012). "Nesting habitat of the Tucuman Parrot Amazona tucumana in an old-growth cloud-forest of Argentina" (PDF). Bird Conservation International. 22 (4): 398–410. doi: 10.1017/S0959270911000414 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-07-25. Retrieved 2021-07-25.
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