Ball (association football)

Adidas Telstar-style 32-panel ball, with the familiar black and white spherical truncated icosahedron pattern, introduced in 1970

A football or soccer ball is the ball used in the sport of association football. The ball's spherical shape, as well as its size, mass, and material composition, are specified by Law 2 of the Laws of the Game maintained by the International Football Association Board. ^[1] Additional, more stringent standards are specified by FIFA and other big governing bodies for the balls used in the competitions they sanction.

Early footballs began as animal bladders or stomachs that would easily fall apart if kicked too much. Later on, these balls began to be hand sewn and made of leather but, the heavy laces of these early balls became painful at times so, Improvements became possible in the 19th century with the introduction of rubber and discoveries of vulcanization by Charles Goodyear. The modern 32-panel ball design was developed in 1962 by Eigil Nielsen, and technological research continues to develop footballs with improved performance. The 32-panel ball design was soon joined by 24-panel balls as well as 42-panel balls, both of which improved on performance prior to 2007.^{[ citation needed ]}

A black-and-white patterned spherical truncated icosahedron design, brought to prominence by the Adidas Telstar, has become a symbol of association football. ^[2] Many different designs of balls exist, varying both in appearance and physical characteristics. ^[3]

The EPL 25/26 match ball by puma.

History

First years of football codes

In the year 1863, the first specifications for footballs were set by the Football Association. Previous to this, footballs were made out of inflated animal bladder, with later leather coverings to help footballs maintain their shapes and sizes. ^[4] In 1872, the specifications were revised and have been kept essentially unchanged by the International Football Association Board. Differences in footballs made since this rule came into effect have been with the material used to create them. Footballs have dramatically changed over time. During medieval times balls were normally made from an outer shell of leather filled with cork shavings. ^[5] Another method of creating a ball was using animal bladders to make it inflatable inside. However, these two styles of footballs were easy to puncture and were inadequate for kicking. It was not until the 19th century that footballs developed a more modern appearance.

Vulcanization

In 1838, Charles Goodyear introduced vulcanized rubber, which dramatically improved football ^[6] and became a stepping stone in the innovation of the ball. ^[7] Vulcanization is the treatment of rubber to give it certain qualities such as strength, elasticity, and resistance to solvents. Vulcanization of rubber also helps the football resist moderate heat and cold. This is useful for when the game is played in harsh conditions i.e. mud and rain. Vulcanization helped create inflatable bladders that pressurize the outer panel arrangement of the football. Charles Goodyear's innovation increased the bounce ability of the ball and made it easier to kick. Most balls of this time had tanned leather with eighteen sections stitched together. These were arranged in six panels of three strips each. ^{[8] [9]}

Reasons for improvement

During the 1900s, footballs were made of leather, with a lace of the same material (known as tiento in Spanish) used to stitch the panels. While leather was ideal for bouncing and kicking the ball, heading the football (hitting it with the player's head) was often painful. This discomfort was likely due to the leather absorbing water from rain, which significantly increased the ball's mass and led to head or neck injuries. By around 2017, this had also been associated with dementia in former players. ^[10] Another problem of early footballs was that they deteriorated quickly, as the plastic used in manufacturing varied in thickness and in quality. ^[8] The ball without the leather lace was developed and patented by Romano Polo, Antonio Tossolini and Juan Valbonesi in 1931 in Bell Ville, Córdoba Province, Argentina. ^{[11] [12]} This innovative ball (named Superball) was adopted by the Argentine Football Association as the official ball for its competitions in 1932. ^[13]

Latest developments

The deformation of the football when it is kicked or when the ball hits a surface is tested. Two styles of footballs have been tested by the Sports Technology Research Group of Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering in Loughborough University; these two models are called the Basic FE model and the Developed FE model of the football. The basic model considered the ball as a spherical shell with isotropic material properties. The developed model also used isotropic material properties but included an additional stiffer stitching seam region. Manufacturers are experimenting with microchips and even cameras embedded inside the ball. The microchip technology was considered for the goal-line technology. The ball used in the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia had an embedded chip which did not provide any measurements, but provided 'user experience' via smartphone after connecting with the ball via NFC. ^{[14] [15] [16]} But, in the 2026 FIFA World Cup, Adidas will use a new ball model that will drastically improve the performance of the game. The Trionda football is set to be the brand's most technologically advanced ball ever with a new mounted chip system. Its technology will help speed up the pace of the games Video Assistant Referee (VAR) system. Its data will send precise information and results and help referees make faster decision calls. This is a huge change in the development of the football and will impact the play and pace of the game greatly. ^[17]

Future developments

Companies such as Umbro, Mitre, Adidas, Nike, Select and Puma are releasing footballs made out of new materials which are intended to provide more accurate flight and allow more power to be transferred to the football. ^{[18] [19]} Other types of balls are set to evolve more in the future like smart balls. These contain microchips and sensors that can monitor the speed and spin of the ball and relay information back to the players, coaches, and analysts. This technological ball will shape the future of the game and improve its efficiency. More future developments like durability and sustainability are set to enhance performance of traditional materials used in soccer balls to guarantee the balls won't get spoiled as quickly. ^[20]

• 
  Early football ball (with its leather lace) used in the 1930 FIFA World Cup Final
• 
  Leather ball used in the football tournament at the 1936 Summer Olympics
• 
  Adidas Torfabrik football used in the Bundesliga in 2011
• 
  UEFA Champions League ball 2021–2022

Head Injuries In Soccer

There are a lot of injuries in soccer. A big factor of them come from players heading the ball. about 22% of soccer injuries are caused by concussions. With such high speeds the ball travels during games in the air, and the hard covered rubber of the ball, it is very likely that someone who heads the ball will get injured. These specific injuries can cause brain damage to the head. On average, a player can experience up to 12 headers a game and these concussion rates can compare, and in some cases exceed those in American Football and Ice Hockey. ^[21]

The EPL 25/26 match ball by puma.

Specification

Construction

Modern footballs are more complex than past footballs. Most footballs consist of twelve regular pentagonal and twenty regular hexagonal panels positioned in a truncated icosahedron spherical geometry. ^[5] Some premium-grade 32-panel balls use non-regular polygons to give a closer approximation to sphericality. ^[22] The inside of the football is made up of a latex or butyl rubber bladder which enables the football to be pressurized. The ball's outside is made of leather, synthetic leather, polyurethane or PVC panels. The surface can be textured, weaved or embossed for greater control and touch. The panel pairs are either machine-stitched, hand-stitched or thermo-bonded (glued and bonded by heat) along the edge. ^[6] To prevent water absorption balls may be specially coated, or the stitches bonded with glue. The size of a football is roughly 22 cm (8.66 inches) in diameter for a regulation size 5 ball. Rules state that a size 5 ball must be 68 to 70 cm (27 to 28 in) in circumference. Averaging that to 69 cm (27 in) and then dividing by π gives a diameter of about 22 cm (8.7 in).

Size and mass

Regulation size and mass for a football is a circumference of 68–70 cm (27–28 in) and a mass of 410–450 g (14–16 oz). The ball is inflated to a pressure of 0.6–1.1 bars (8.7–16.0 psi) at sea level. ^[23] This is known as "Size 5". Smaller balls, Sizes 1, 3, and 4, are also produced for younger players or as training tools. ^[23] Following consultations with football associations, clubs and ball manufacturers, FIFA has developed non-compulsory recommendations for appropriate sizes, circumferences and weights of balls for different age groups of youth football. ^[24]

Types of ball

There are different types of footballs depending on the match and turf including training footballs, match footballs, professional match footballs, beach footballs, street footballs, indoor footballs, turf balls, futsal footballs and mini/skills footballs. ^[25]

A professional/premium match soccer ball

• Professional/premium match footballs are developed with top professional clubs to maximize players' natural abilities and skills. They are FIFA-approved for use at the highest professional and international levels and designed for performance, exact specifications, great accuracy, speed and control. Air retention, water-resistance, and performance are far superior when compared to a training ball. They are intended for all natural and artificial turf surfaces and all climates. These are the most expensive footballs.
• Matchday footballs are high performance range of balls for all playing surfaces. The outer casing is either leather or an approved synthetic and it will typically be water-resistant as well. They are guaranteed to conform to official size, mass, and texture regulations, designed to suit all levels of play and all age groups. These balls cost more than turf or training balls, which is offset by their superior level of quality.
• Recreational/practice/training footballs are tough and highly durable balls for extended use. Made of robust materials for use on all playing surfaces and used by players at any level. Practice balls are the least expensive balls when compared with match type footballs.
• Turf balls are specifically designed to work on artificial surfaces that mimic grass. They are durable and reasonably affordable, but tend to skip more when used on a natural pitch.
• Promotional balls are usually made to promote a name brand, organization or event.
• Indoor footballs come in the same sizes as outdoor soccer balls but are designed to have less bounce and rebound in them, making it possible to control the ball on a smaller court or indoor arena. The cover of an indoor ball is also the strongest of any category, so it can withstand the hard rebound impact on the court flooring and wall surfaces.
• Futsal footballs differ from typical footballs in that the bladder is filled with foam. That makes the ball heavier and with less bounce for use on the hard futsal playing surface. A futsal football is smaller in size than a football used on the football pitch.
• Beach and Street balls are designed for harder surfaces. They are made from softer materials and have lower risks of injury. They are typically brighter colored balls which makes them easier to see in low light conditions.
• Mini/Skills balls are used for training/focus on specific skills. These balls are smaller than normal soccer balls and are easier to handle. ^[26]

Types of Brands

There are many different brands of balls. The most well known brands come from Nike, Adidas, Puma, Mitre, Select, and MLS                                                  

• Nike: Is a widely known brand and has many ranges and types of balls provided.
• Adidas: They are regularly used as FIFA's game balls and are used as many official balls in the world cup.
• Puma: Is not commonly used as the official ball and is not well known for their quality. But, they have great durability and are known for their unique design and colors.
• Mitre: Has a wide range of balls for the youth and all ages and playing surfaces.
• Select: Has a high range of balls with different designs for different playing styles/surfaces.
• MLS: Balls come in a variety of sizes and colors. ^[27]

Why Different Leagues Use Different Balls and its Different Aerodynamics

Main articles: Aerodynamics of the newly approved football for the English Premier League 2020–21 season The Aerodynamics of a Soccer Ball

Different soccer leagues use different types and brands of official match balls primarily due to sponsorship agreements, playing style preferences, and performance specifications. Major corporations such as Nike, Adidas, Puma, and Mitre compete for exclusive contracts with leagues, which include design customization and technological features tailored to the league's needs. For instance, the Premier League uses Nike balls, designed for faster play and enhanced visibility in England's often rainy weather, while the UEFA Champions League uses Adidas balls that emphasize precise flight and stability for international competition. Similarly, La Liga's Puma ball is engineered for increased control and accuracy to complement Spain's technical style of play. These partnerships provide financial support for the leagues and allow each competition to establish a unique identity and brand recognition through the distinct design and performance of their match ball ^[28] . The factors that it takes to take to kick a ball are all apart of the aerodynamics on the ball. The angle, the curve, and the weather factors, such as wind and rain, allow for players to hit the ball at the precise angle in order to cross, pass, or shoot the ball. ^[29]

Suppliers

See also: List of FIFA World Cup official match balls, List of UEFA European Championship official match balls, List of AFC Asian Cup official match balls, and List of Olympic Football official match balls

Many companies throughout the world produce footballs. The earliest balls were made by local suppliers where the game was played. It is estimated that 70% of all footballs are made in Sialkot, Pakistan with other major producers being China and India. ^[30]

As a response to the problems with the balls in the 1962 FIFA World Cup,^{[ clarification needed ]} Adidas created the Adidas Santiago ^[31] – this led to Adidas winning the contract to supply the match balls for all official FIFA and UEFA matches, which they have held since the 1970s, and also for the Olympic Games. ^[32] They also supply the ball for the UEFA Champions League which is called the Adidas Finale.

FIFA World Cup

Main article: FIFA World Cup official match balls

In early FIFA World Cups, match balls were mostly provided by the hosts from local suppliers. Records indicate a variety of models being used within individual tournaments and even, on some occasions, individual games. Over time, FIFA took more control over the choice of ball used. Since 1970, Adidas have supplied official match balls (all of which were made in Sialkot, Pakistan) for every tournament. ^[33]

1930 FIFA World Cup Final

Main article: 1930 FIFA World Cup final

The 1930 World Cup was the first FIFA-organized World Cup, but not the first international soccer tournament. Unlike post-1970 World Cups, no new balls were constructed for it. Each game, the two participating teams had to agree on a ball to play with. The T-model ball was by far the most used ball during this World Cup's games (used in 13/18 total games played).

Up until the Final, Argentina and Uruguay (the finalists), preferred to use two different balls, the 12-panelled ball "Tiento" and the T-model balls, respectively. The two teams could not agree on a ball to use for the match and therefore, a compromise was made. For the first half, Argentina's "Tiento" would be used, and for the second half, a T-model ball would be used. Argentina won their half 2-1 after using their ball, however, Uruguay came back and won the match 4-2 after halftime. Notably, 2 T-model balls were used in the second half as the first became deflated. This is the only instance in a World Cup Final where two different types of balls were used. ^[34]

2010 World Cup

Main article: 2010 FIFA World Cup

For the 2010 World Cup, the ball awarded the honor of official match ball was the Adidas' Jabulani.

This ball was actually the source of numerous criticisms regarding the ball's "supernatural" movements. ^[35] Italian striker Giampaolo "Pazzo" Pazzini said "It's a disaster … When a cross comes in, you go to head the ball, but it moves half a meter and you end up just shaving it on contact". ^[36] A large number of other footballers from various countries shared a similar sentiment, that this ball had unpredictable movements and was horrible. To name a few critics of this ball, Claudio Bravo, Luis Fabiano, Lionel Messi and even Denmark's coach Morten Olsen all described this ball as "Impossible". ^[37] Some players however, such as Clint Dempsey of the United States, didn't share this negative sentiment towards Jabulani.

The overall outcry against this ball sparked NASA scientists at the Fluid Mechanics Laboratory at NASA's Ames Research Center to test the performance of Jabulani versus the 2006 World Cup ball, which also received many criticisms, although substantially less than Jabulani. Rabi Mehta, an aerospace engineer at NASA Ames asserted that these players were likely "seeing a knuckle-ball effect". He elaborated that when a smooth seamed ball is hit head-on without much spin, the air on the surface is affected by the seams, producing an asymmetric airflow. This creates unbalanced side forces that can suddenly push the ball in one direction causing volatile movements. Similar to the knuckle ball pitch in baseball. ^[38]

League balls

The most up-to-date balls used in various club football competitions as of 2025–26 season are:

Balls used in football leagues
Ball	League
Adidas Mundial de Clubes	FIFA FIFA Club World Cup FIFA Intercontinental Cup
Adidas Fussballliebe	UEFA UEFA Super Cup
Molten Vantaggio	AFC AFC Champions League Elite AFC Women's Club Championship AFC Champions League Two AFC Challenge League
Puma Orbita	CAF CAF Champions League CAF Super Cup CAF Women's Champions League CAF Confederation Cup
Nike Flight	CONCACAF CONCACAF Champions Cup
	CONMEBOL Copa Libertadores Recopa Sudamericana Copa Libertadores Femenina Copa Sudamericana
Pasifika Taniwa	OFC OFC Champions League
Adidas Finale Play-off rounds and competition proper only [a] Competition proper only [b]	UEFA UEFA Champions League UEFA Women's Champions League
Decathlon Kipsta Competition proper only	UEFA UEFA Europa League UEFA Conference League
Puma Orbita	LaLiga
	Liga Profesional Femenina de Fútbol
Adidas El Primero	RFEF Copa del Rey Copa de la Reina Supercopa de España Supercopa de España Femenina
Puma Orbita	Premier League
	English Football League
Nike Flight	WSL Football
Mitre Ultimax Pro	The Football Association FA Cup FA Community Shield Women's FA Cup Women's FA Community Shield
Puma Orbita	Lega Serie A
Kappa Kombat Ball	Serie B
Erreà	Serie C
Nike Flight	Serie D
Puma Orbita	Serie A Femminile
	Serie B Femminile
Select Derbystar Brillant [39]	Deutsche Fußball Liga
Adidas Fussballliebe	DFB 3. Liga Frauen-Bundesliga 2. Frauen-Bundesliga DFB Pokal [c]
Decathlon Kipsta	Ligue de Football Professionnel
Nike Flight	French Football Federation Coupe de France Championnat National Division 1 Féminine Division 2 Féminine
Select Derbystar Brillant Nike Flight [d]	KNVB Eredivisie Johan Cruyff Shield KNVB Cup Eerste Divisie Tweede Divisie
Adidas Fussballliebe	KNVB Eredivisie Vrouwen KNVB Women's Cup
Puma Orbita	Liga Portugal
	Turkish Football Federation Süper Lig Turkish Super Cup TFF First League TFF Second League TFF Third League Turkish Cup
	SPFL
Voit Bliss	Liga MX
Nike Flight	Primera Division
Golty	Categoría Primera A
Nike Flight	Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
Adidas Argentum	Argentine Primera División
Nike Flight	Russian Premier League
Nike Flight	Superleague Greece
Select Brillant Super	Liga I
Adidas Fussballliebe	J1 League
	K League 1
Puma Orbita	Parva Liga
Adidas Fussballliebe	Ekstraklasa
Adidas MLS Pro	Major League Soccer
Select Derbystar Brillant	Canadian Premier League
Nike Flight	Chinese Professional Football League
Mitre Ultimax Pro	Football Australia Australian Professional Leagues Australia Cup
Nivia Ashtang	I-League
Molten VG-5000A	United Football League
Adidas Fussballliebe	Eliteserien
Decathlon Kipsta	Pro League
Select Derbystar Brillant Super	Danish Superliga
Select Derbystar Brillant Super	Veikkausliiga
Select Derbystar Brillant Super	Allsvenskan
Select Derbystar Brillant Super	Iceland Úrvalsdeild
Voit	/ National Premier Soccer League
Nivia Ashtang	Indian Super League
Nike Flight	National Women's Soccer League
	Saudi Premier League
Dong Luc Group Galaxy UHV 2.07	V.League 1
Grand Sport Group Primero Mundo 5	Thai League 1
Mitre Ultimax Pro	Football Association of Singapore Singapore Premier League National Football League Women's Premier League Women's National League
	National Premier Soccer League
	Welsh Premier League
Adidas Fussballliebe	Lithuanian A Lyga Lithuanian I Lyga
Puma Orbita	Ukrainian Premier League
Select Brilliant Super	Professional Football League of Ukraine Persha Liha Druha Liha
Puma Orbita	Malaysian Football League

Notes

1. UEFA Champions League only
2. UEFA Women's Champions League only
3. Final only
4. KNVB Cup and Johan Cruyff Shield only

Unicode

The association football symbol ( U+26BD⚽SOCCER BALL) was introduced by computing standard Unicode. ^[40] The symbol was representable in HTML as ⚽ or ⚽. The addition of this symbol follows a 2008 proposal by Karl Pentzlin. ^[41]

See also

• Ball (gridiron football)
• Football (ball)
• Truncated icosahedron

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Bibliography

• Ghys, Étienne (2025). The Football: The Amazing Mathematics of the World's Most Watched Object. Translated by Lavender Fagan, Teresa. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-26312-0.

External links

• New York Times interactive feature on the evolution of the world cup ball
• van Rheenen, Erik (16 August 2013). "Why Are Soccer Balls Made of Hexagons?". Mental Floss . Retrieved 16 August 2013.