Lakkundi

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Lakkundi
Lokkigundi
Village
11th century Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 03.jpg
Historic temples at Lakkundi
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Lakkundi
Location in Karnataka, India
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Lakkundi
Lakkundi (India)
Coordinates: 15°23′23″N75°43′06″E / 15.38972°N 75.71833°E / 15.38972; 75.71833
CountryIndia
State Karnataka
Languages
 • Official Kannada
Time zone UTC+5:30 (IST)
Postal code
582115
ISO 3166 code IN-KA
Vehicle registration KA-26
Nearest cityGadag

Lakkundi, also referred to as Lokkugundi, was a major city before the 14th century and is now a village in the Gadag District of Karnataka, India. By the 10th century, it was already a major economic and commercial centre, hosting mint operations for South India. It was mentioned in Kannada and Sanskrit inscriptions and texts. By the 12th century, many Hindu and Jain temples had been consecrated here, along with public infrastructure such as stepwells and water reservoirs. Among the major temples are the Brahma Jinalaya (the oldest), Mallikarjuna, Lakshminarayana, Manikeshwara, Naganatha, Kumbheshvara, Nanneshwara, Someshwara, Narayana, Nilakanteshwara, Kasivisesvara (the most sophisticated and ornate), Virabhadra, Virupaksha, and others. As its importance and wealth grew, Lakkundi became one of the capitals of the Hoysala Empire. [1] [2] [3]

Contents

In the 14th century, the city was targeted by Islamic Sultanates as they sought to plunder and establish political dominance over the South Indian Hindu kingdoms. The village of Lakkundi contains over 50 temple ruins, many of which are in poor condition and inhabited by bats. However, the major temples have been restored and are now maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Lakkundi is an important centre for the study of Kalyana Chalukya era Hindu architecture, known as the "Lakkundi school" of architects and craftsmen. [4]

British archaeologists of the 19th century played a significant role in rediscovering Lakkundi and its significance in Indian art history. The ruins of Lakkundi are now a highlight of Indian art history in museums, with some ruins displayed in a local sculpture gallery and sheds near the temples. [5]

Aside from Hindu and Jain monuments, a Muslim dargah dedicated to Zindeshah Wali is also found in Lakkundi. The site attracts visitors from all over the world due to its rich historical and cultural heritage. [6]

Location

Core area of Western Chalukya architectural activity in modern Karnataka state, India Western Chalukya Monuments.svg
Core area of Western Chalukya architectural activity in modern Karnataka state, India

Lakkundi is about 12 kilometers from the twin city of Gadag-Betageri, between Hampi and Goa, connected by India's National Highway 67. Home to numerous ruins of historic Hindu and Jain temples, Lakkundi is located in a region with many major temple groups from the Kalachuris, Chalukyas, Yadavas-Seunas, Hoysalas, and Vijayanagara eras. For example, it is close to historic temples found in Dambal, Kukkanur, Gadag, Annigeri, Mulgund, Harti, Laksmesvara, Kalkeri, Savadi, Hooli, Rona, Sudi, Koppal, and Itagi. [7] The nearest railway station is in Gadag city.

History

Lakkundi is the phonetically shortened form of the historic name Lokkigundi, a name found in inscriptions in the village and others found in southern Karnataka and Maharashtra. [8] The earliest surviving inscription was discovered by British archaeologists on a stone slab near Kanner Bhanvi—a stepwell in Lakkundi. The inscribed stone slab was being used by local dhobis (washermen) to wash clothes at the stepwell. [9] The inscription on it dates to 790 CE. This inscription confirms that Lakkundi was already in existence and significant enough for an inscription by the 8th century. James Fergusson—the 19th-century Scottish historian known for his archaeological and architectural studies in India—reported over 30 more inscriptions from Lakkundi, in Kannada and Sanskrit, most of which range between the 11th and 12th centuries. Some of these were foundation inscriptions of Jain and Hindu temples; others were gifts to different temples, to Maha-agrahara, to monasteries such as Hiree Matha (now lost), to donate stepwells for the public and pilgrims, and for other purposes. Though damaged, many of them include the Saka year of the inscription. The profusion of these inscriptions attests to the importance of Lakkundi as a historic city to both Hindu and Jain traditions. [9]

A decorated pillar at the Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi 11th century Hindu temple stambha, Kasivisvesvara, Lakkundi, Karnataka.jpg
A decorated pillar at the Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi

Many more inscriptions on stone and copper plates mentioning Lokkugundi have been discovered far from Lakkundi. However, in this part of ancient and medieval Karnataka, Lokkugundi is among the most mentioned cities. By 1884, some 35 Hindu and Jain inscriptions dated to between the 9th and 13th centuries CE had been found that mention Lokkugundi. [10] Though Lakkundi was an established town in the second half of the 1st millennium, its growth and wealth came after 973 CE when Taila II, a Chalukya of Vatapi descendant and chieftain appointed in 965 CE, organized a successful revolt against Karkka II of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. In regional texts, the reign that followed is called Cālukya (Later Chalukyas, Kalyani Chalukyas, or Chalukyas of Kalyana) to distinguish them from the Calukya (Early Chalukyas). Lakkundi flowered and grew with the Shaiva-tradition Hindu monarch Satyasraya Irivabedanga—the successor and son of Taila II who came to power in 997 or 998 CE. This is attested by both Jain and Hindu inscriptions of the early 11th century, particularly of a woman named Attimabbe who obtained permission from Satyasraya to build her Jaina temple; the result is the oldest surviving Brahma Jinalaya temple in Lakkundi. [11] [12]

Lakkundi grew to be a major city, prosperous and one with a mint. Lakkundi and several historic towns to its north—such as Rona, Sudi, Kradugu (now known as Gadag), Hooli and others—attracted a burst of religious, cultural, and literary flowering from the 11th to 13th centuries, with ever more sophisticated temple architecture, Vidyadana (charity-supported schools), and public works such as stepwells. These are largely in the context of Shaivism and Jainism, though a few major temples of Vaishnavism here are also from this period. [13]

Smaller Lakkundi monuments can be traced to the Kalachuris, the short rule here of the Seunas, and the longer rule of the Hoysalas. In 1192 CE, after many of the remarkable temples of Lakkundi were already standing, a Sanskrit inscription of the Hoysala king Ballala II re-affirms the continued importance of Lakkundi and it becoming his capital. [14] [15] After the 13th century, there is an abrupt end to all evidence of new public works, temples, inscriptions, and other indirect signs of economic prosperity in Lakkundi.

Temples

Lakkundi has about 50 temples and temple ruins of different sizes and sophistication, all dated to pre-14th century. They are of Shaivism, Jainism, and Vaishnavism, though most temples include diverse iconography such as Surya and Vedic deities such as Brahma. For example, the oldest Jaina temple—Brahma Jinalaya—includes Hindu statues and artworks such as that of the four-headed Brahma, Saraswati, and Lakshmi, along with Mahavira, Parsvanatha, and other Tirthankaras. The major surviving temples in Lakkundi include: [9]

Lakkundi temples
TempleYear/CenturyImageNotes
Brahma Jinalaya 1007 CE [16] 11th century Brahma Jinalaya temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 01.jpg The largest Jain temple in Lakkundi and the oldest of the large temples (1007 CE).
Naganatha Temple, Lakkundi Early 11th century [17] 12th century Naganatha temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 01.jpg Another Jain temple, dedicated to Parsvanatha and Naga (serpent deity).
Kasivisvesvara Temple, Lakkundi 1030 CE [18] 11th century Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 06.jpg Also known as the Kavatalesvara temple in historic texts, it is a Hindu twin temple—one for Shiva and the other for Surya. It is highly ornate and the most sophisticated among the Lakkundi temples. According to Burgess, it has "one of the finest surviving illustration[s] of Hindu decorative artwork in India". It is one of the best illustrations of the Kalyana Chalukya style of Hindu architecture. [18]
Malikarjuna Temple, Lakkundi 11th century [17] A Hindu temple.
Halagund Basavanna Temple, Lakkundi A Shaiva Lingayat temple.
Virupaksha Temple, Lakkundi 1010 CE [19] 11th 12th century Virupaksha temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 01.jpg An active and most-attended village temple, featuring Rashtrakuta-style Hindu architecture.
Lakshminarayana Temple, Lakkundi 11th century [17] A Vishnu temple.
Manikesvar Temple, Lakkundi 1160 CE [20] 11th 12th century Manikeshwara temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 01.jpg A trikuta temple with one of the many historic stepwells in Lakkundi.
Virabhadra Temple, Lakkundi 11th century [17] A Hindu temple.
Nanesvara Temple, Lakkundi 1020–30 CE [21] 11th century Nannesvara temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 01.jpg A Hindu temple with innovations in mandapa and pillar architecture, one of the earliest examples of the fully developed Kalyana Chalukya style.
Somesvara Temple, Lakkundi 11th-century [22] A Shiva temple closer to the historic fort walls; parts of the temple have influences from the Sudi–Aihole school of Hindu architecture.
Nilakanthesvara Temple, Lakkundi 11th century [17] A Shiva temple with notable artwork on the outer walls.
Kumbheshvara Temple, Lakkundi Late 11th or early 12th century [23] 11th 12th century Kumbhareshwara temple, Lakkundi, Karnataka India - 01.jpg Another trikuta Hindu temple with one section better preserved, now surrounded by private homes; the symmetric gudhamandapa is brilliantly structured and constructed.
Other Hindu and Jaina temple ruins8th to 13th-centuryThe Siddharamesvara temple, for example, is a small Karnata-Chalukya style temple from the early 11th century. [24]

Stepwells

Stepwell near the Manikesvara Temple in Lakkundi Stepped Well at ManikesvaraTemple in Lakkundi.JPG
Stepwell near the Manikesvara Temple in Lakkundi

Lakkundi has a number of stepwells, some functioning as water tanks for the temples. These are artistically built with small canopied niches enshrining lingas. The Chateer Bavi, Kanne Bavi, and Musukina Bavi are architecturally significant and popular for their artwork and carvings.

Inscriptions

Over two dozen Kannada and Sanskrit inscriptions from different Hindu dynasties have been found at Lakkundi. These describe gifts and donations, the names of donors and the social classes they came from, the ritual and cultural aspects of their times, and the socio-political context of medieval Karnataka. Some of these are important for establishing the history of Jain heritage in Karnataka during the rule of these dynasties. [25] Key inscriptions include:

Tourism

Lakkundi is a significant site for tourists interested in Chalukya-style temples, stepwells, and historic inscriptions. Although less visited than nearby Hampi, it contains some of the finest examples of architecture from the Kalyana Chalukya period (c. 10th century CE). [26]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Edith Tomory (1982). A History of Fine Arts in India and the West. Orient Longman. pp. 119–120. ISBN   978-0-86131-321-1.
  2. ↑ "Chapter XIV, Karnataka, The Tourist Paradise". Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 3 March 2009.
  3. ↑ Adam Hardy (1995). Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries. Abhinav Publications. pp. 157–160, 335–337. ISBN   978-81-7017-312-0.
  4. ↑ "Archaeological Survey of India". asi.nic.in. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  5. ↑ Eb, Pranav (10 April 2018). "A Guide To Nelliyampathy: Nature At Its Best". www.nativeplanet.com. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  6. ↑ "Lakkundi | India | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  7. ↑ Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 3–4, Chapter 33. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  8. ↑ "CHAPTER 9. THE CALUKYAS AND THE KALACURYAS OF KALYANI. HISTORY–ANCIENT PERIOD, Chalukya" (PDF). Retrieved 10 March 2009.
  9. 1 2 3 James Burgess (1885). Lists of the Antiquarian Remains in the Bombay Presidency. Government Central Press. pp. 37–39.
  10. ↑ J.M. Campbell (1884). Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Dháwár. Government Central Press. pp. 389–390.
  11. ↑ Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 3–7. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  12. ↑ G. S. Dikshit (1947), Satyasraya Chalukya, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 10, pp. 241-244, JSTOR   44137139
  13. ↑ Nupur Dasgupta (2021). Henry Albery; Jens-Uwe Hartmann; Himanshu Prabha Ray (eds.). Power, Presence and Space: South Asian Rituals in Archaeological Context. Taylor & Francis. pp. 260–272. ISBN   978-1-00-016880-8.
  14. ↑ Nupur Dasgupta (2021). Henry Albery; Jens-Uwe Hartmann; Himanshu Prabha Ray (eds.). Power, Presence and Space: South Asian Rituals in Archaeological Context. Taylor & Francis. pp. 279–280. ISBN   978-1-00-016880-8.
  15. ↑ Edith Tomory (1982). A History of Fine Arts in India and the West. Orient Longman. p. 120. ISBN   978-0-86131-321-1.
  16. ↑ Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 89–91. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 83–84, 87. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  18. 1 2 Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 95–100. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  19. ↑ Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 88–89. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  20. ↑ Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. p. 102. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  21. ↑ Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 92–94. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  22. ↑ Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 87–88. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  23. ↑ Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 100–102. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  24. ↑ Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1996). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Volume 1 Part 3 South India, Text & Plates. American Institute of Indian Studies. p. 87. ISBN   978-81-86526-00-2.
  25. ↑ "LAKKUNDI". By Dr. A. V. Narasimha Murthy. Archived from the original on 6 January 2009. Retrieved 3 March 2009.
  26. ↑ "Handbook of Karnataka, Lakkundi". Archived from the original on 16 February 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2008.

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