Politics of Libya

Last updated

The politics of Libya has been in an uncertain state since the collapse of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in 2011 and a recent civil war and various jihadists and tribal elements controlling parts of the country. [1]

Contents

On 10 March 2021, the interim Government of National Unity (GNU), unifying the Second Al-Thani Cabinet and the Government of National Accord was formed, only to face new opposition in Government of National Stability, until Libyan Political Dialogue Forum assured the ongoing ceasefire.

Libyan Political Agreement (2015) & Political Atmosphere post-2015

Members of that House of Representatives and the New General National Congress signed a political agreement on 18 December 2015. [2] Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidential Council and a seventeen-member interim Government of National Accord was formed, with a view to holding new elections within two years. [2] The House of Representatives would continue to exist as a legislature and an advisory body, to be known as the State Council, was formed with members nominated by the New General National Congress. [3]

This attempt at unification was unsuccessful, as three competing governments still remained by the end of 2016, [4] disputes between which continuing until the formation of the GNU in 2015. Still, even with the establishment of this governmental structure, widespread human rights abuses exist throughout the country to this day; this is due to the lack of a central government to regulate the ten years of conflict that ensued after Gaddafi's reign. [5] However, the country has made some "democratic" progress: Libya's score was trending upwards from 2011 to 2013 on the PolityIV authority trends scale, increasing from a -7 to a 1, [6] shifting its categorization from “autocracy” to “anocracy.” [7]

House of Representatives

The House of Representatives was formed following June 2014 elections, when the General National Congress formed as a transitional body after the Libyan Revolution dissolved. However, Islamists fared poorly in the low-turnout elections, [8] and members of the Islamist-led GNC reconvened in August 2014, refusing to recognize the new parliament dominated by secularist and federalist lawmakers. [9] Supporters of the New General National Congress swiftly seized control of Tripoli, Libya's constitutional capital, forcing the newly elected parliament into virtual exile in Tobruk, near the Egyptian border. [10] The House of Representatives enjoys widespread international recognition as Libya's official government. However, the Tripoli-based Supreme Court declared it illegal and voided the results of the election in November 2014. The court ruling was hailed by the GNC and its backers, but it was rejected as invalid by the House of Representatives and its loyalists. [11] [12]

Against this backdrop of division, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Ansar al-Sharia, as well as other militant groups both religious and tribal in nature, have seized control of several cities and districts across Libya, especially in Cyrenaica, which is theoretically under the control of the Tobruk-based government. [13] [14] [15]

A number of commentators have described Libya as a failed state or suggested it is on the verge of failure. [16] [17] [18] [19]

General National Congress

The General National Congress (also translated as General National Council [20] ) was the legislative authority of Libya. It was elected by popular vote on 7 July 2012, and from 8 August replaced the National Transitional Council that had governed the country since the end of the Libyan Civil War. [21] [22] [23] The General National Congress was composed of 200 members of which 80 were elected through a party list system of proportional representation, and 120 were elected as independents in multiple-member districts. [24] [25]

The executive branch was appointed by the GNC and led by the prime minister, while the president of the GNC was the de facto head of state, though not explicitly described as such in the Declaration. [26]

The main responsibility of the GNC was to form a constituent assembly which would write Libya's permanent constitution, for approval by a referendum. The law of Libya is based on sharia. [27]

On 30 March 2014, the General National Congress voted to replace itself with a new House of Representatives. The new legislature would allocate 30 seats for women, would have 200 seats overall (with individuals able to run as members of political parties) and allow Libyans of foreign nationalities to run for office. [28] While elections were held and lawmakers took office, the former General National Congress rejected the results and reconvened in opposition to the new parliament, which now meets in the eastern Libyan city of Tobruk. [11]

In early December 2015 both parliaments, the GNC and the House of Representatives, agreed a declaration of principles calling for the formation of a joint ten-person committee to name an interim prime minister and two deputies, leading to new elections within two years. [29]

Changes after the 2011 Civil War

Political parties were banned in Libya from 1972 until the removal of Gaddafi's government, and all elections were nonpartisan under law. However, during the revolution, the National Transitional Council (NTC), a body formed on 27 February 2011 by anti-Gaddafi forces to act as the "political face of the revolution", made the introduction of multiparty democracy a cornerstone of its agenda. In June 2011, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi said his father would agree to internationally monitored general elections, and would step down if he lost them, but his offer was refused by the rebels and ignored by the UN Security Council. [30]

On 8 March, the NTC issued a statement in which it declared itself to be the "sole representative all over Libya". [31] The council formed an interim governing body on 23 March. As of 20 October 2011, 100 countries declared full support to the council by severing all relations with Gaddafi's rule and recognizing the National Transitional Council as the "rightful representative of Libya".

On 3 August 2011, the NTC issued a Constitutional Declaration which declared the statehood of Libya as a democracy with Islam as its state religion, in which the state guarantees the rule of law and an independent judiciary as well as civic and human basic rights (including freedom of religion and women's rights), and which contains provisions for a phase of transition to a presidential republic with an elected national assembly and a democratically legitimized constitution by 2013. Vice Chairman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga declared Libya to be "liberated" on 23 October 2011, announcing an official end to the war. Chairman Mustafa Abdul Jalil said Libya would become an Islamic democracy in the wake of Gaddafi's death, though the extent of Islamic law's influence would be determined by elected lawmakers. [32] Ghoga later confirmed that Libya will continue to adhere to all international agreements to which it was signatory prior to the uprising. [33]

On 7 July 2012 an election was held for the General National Congress (GNC) to replace the NTC. There were 2,501 candidates for the 200 seats – 136 for political parties and 64 for independent candidates. About 300 candidates' views were considered unacceptable and removed from candidates list, suspected of sympathizing with the defeated forces of the Jamahiriya. Accreditation centers have also been organized in European cities with larger Libyan communities like Berlin and Paris, in order to allow Libyan nationals, there to cast their vote. [34]

On 8 August 2012 the NTC officially dissolved and transferred power to the General National Congress.

Political parties and elections

On 7 July 2012, the Legislative body – the General National Congress – was elected.

List of parties with seats in the General National Congress

List of parties without seats in the General National Congress

International organization participation

The National Transitional Council has pledged to honor Libya's international commitments until the 2012 elections.

Libya is a member of ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, AU, CAEU, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHRC (suspended), UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, UNWTO and UNHABITAT.

Libyan politics under Muammar Gaddafi

After originally rising to power through a military coup d'état in 1969, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi's governance of Libya became increasingly centric on the teachings of his Green Book , which he published in the mid-1970s chapter by chapter as a foundation for a new form of government. [40] This jamahiriya , as he called it, was supposedly a form of direct democracy in which power was balanced between a General People's Congress, consisting of 2,700 representatives of Basic People's Congresses, and an executive General People's Committee, headed by a General Secretary, who reported to the prime minister and the president. However, Gaddafi retained virtually all power, continuing to operate and control vestiges of the military junta put in place in 1969.

Gaddafi's authoritarian rule, a transition from the former monarchical structure, aligns with Samuels' finding that most military coups spark change from one form of non-democratic government to another. [41] Gaddafi acted as a military/personalist leader during his 42-year reign, nearly tripling the average ruling length of 15.1 years for this regime type, as found by political scientist Barbara Geddes in her 1999 publication. [42] Still, Gaddafi's regime did follow many of the military/personalist tropes that Geddes outlined: failing after its leader's death, relying on unstable personal networks to rule, and facing military opposition during the reign. [43]

The Libyan revolt of 2011 that ultimately ended Gaddafi's reign was partially inspired by both Tunisia and Egypt's attempted democratization, [44] demonstrating the neighborhood effect: a theory that postulates countries will be influenced by their neighbors when adopting regime types. [45]

Wanted figures

Interpol on 4 March 2011 issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, which imposed a travel ban and asset freeze. The warning lists Gaddafi himself and 15 key members of his government: [46]

  1. Muammar Gaddafi: Responsibility for ordering repression of demonstrations, human rights abuses. *Killed 20 October 2011 in Sirte*
  2. Dr. Baghdadi Mahmudi: Head of the Liaison Office of the Revolutionary Committees. Revolutionary Committees involved in violence against demonstrators.
  3. Abuzed Omar Dorda: Director, External Security Organization. Government loyalist. Head of external intelligence agency.
  4. Major-General Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr: Defense Minister. Overall responsibility for actions of armed forces. *Killed 20 October 2011 in Sirte*
  5. Ayesha Gaddafi: Daughter of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government.
  6. Hannibal Muammar Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government.
  7. Mutassim Gaddafi: National Security Adviser. Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government. *Killed 20 October 2011 in Sirte*
  8. Al-Saadi Gaddafi: Commander Special Forces. Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government. Command of military units involved in repression of demonstrations.
  9. Saif al-Islam Gaddafi: Director, Gaddafi Foundation. Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government. Inflammatory public statements encouraging violence against demonstrators.
  10. Abdulqader Yusef Dibri: Head of Muammar Gaddafi's personal security. Responsibility for government security. History of directing violence against dissidents.
  11. Matuq Mohammed Matuq: Secretary for Utilities. Senior member of government. Involvement with Revolutionary Committees. Past history of involvement in suppression of dissent and violence.
  12. Sayyid Mohammed Qadhaf Al-dam: Cousin of Muammar Gaddafi. In the 1980s, Sayyid was involved in the dissident assassination campaign and allegedly responsible for several deaths in Europe. He is also thought to have been involved in arms procurement.
  13. Khamis Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government. Command of military units involved in repression of demonstrations.
  14. Muhammad Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government.
  15. Saif al-Arab Gaddafi: Son of Muammar Gaddafi. Closeness of association with government.
  16. Colonel Abdullah Senussi: Director Military Intelligence. Military Intelligence involvement in suppression of demonstrations. Past history includes suspicion of involvement in Abu Selim prison massacre. Convicted in absentia for bombing of UTA flight. Brother-in-law of Muammar Gaddafi.

The NTC has been in negotiations with Algeria and Niger, neighboring countries to which members of the government and defecting military commanders have fled, attempting to secure the arrest and extradition of Al-Saadi Gaddafi and others. [47]

Of these officials, Baghdadi Mahmudi and Abuzed Omar Dorda were arrested, [48] [49] while Saif al-Arab Gaddafi was killed by a NATO airstrike during the war, [50] Khamis Gaddafi was killed in action after the fall of Tripoli, [51] and Muammar and Mutassim Gaddafi, as well as Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr, were killed during the fall of Sirte. [52]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Libya</span>

Libya's history involves its rich mix of ethnic groups, including the indigenous Berbers/Amazigh people. Amazigh have been present throughout the entire history of the country. For most of its history, Libya has been subjected to varying degrees of foreign control, from Europe, Asia, and Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Libya</span> Country in North Africa

Libya, officially the State of Libya, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad to the south, Niger to the southwest, Algeria to the west, and Tunisia to the northwest, as well as maritime borders with Greece, Italy and Malta to the north. Libya comprises three historical regions: Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica. With an area of almost 1.8 million km2 (700,000 sq mi), it is the fourth-largest country in Africa and the Arab world, and the 16th-largest in the world. Libya claims 32,000 square kilometres of southeastern Algeria, south of the Libyan town of Ghat. The country's official religion is Islam, with 96.6% of the Libyan population being Sunni Muslims. The official language of Libya is Arabic, with vernacular Libyan Arabic being spoken most widely. The majority of Libya's population is Arab. The largest city and capital, Tripoli, is located in northwestern Libya and contains over a million of Libya's seven million people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saif al-Islam Gaddafi</span> Son of former Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi (born 1972)

Saif al-Islam Muammar al-Gaddafi is a Libyan political figure. He is the second son of the late Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi and his second wife Safia Farkash. He was a part of his father's inner circle, performing public relations and diplomatic roles on his behalf. He publicly turned down his father's offer of the country's second highest post and held no official government position. According to United States Department of State officials in Tripoli, during his father's reign, he was the second most widely recognized person in Libya, being at times the de facto prime minister, and was mentioned as a possible successor, though he rejected this. An arrest warrant was issued for him on 27 June 2011 by the International Criminal Court (ICC) for charges of crimes against humanity against the Libyan people, for killing and persecuting civilians, under Articles 7(1)(a) and 7(1)(h) of the Rome statute. He denied the charges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algeria–Libya relations</span> Bilateral relations

Relations between Algeria and Libya have undergone significant changes over the past decade. The previous tensions between the revolutionary National Transitional Council (NTC) of Libya and the single-party autocracy of President Abdelaziz Bouteflika of Algeria are now part of history. Abdelaziz Bouteflika resigned in 2019 following widespread protests, and the NTC was succeeded by other governing bodies in Libya.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Libyan civil war (2011)</span> 2011 armed conflict

The Libyan civil war, also known as the First Libyan Civil War, was an armed conflict in 2011 in the North African country of Libya that was fought between forces loyal to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and rebel groups that were seeking to oust his government. The war was preceded by protests in Zawiya on 8 August 2009 and finally ignited by protests in Benghazi beginning on Tuesday 15 February 2011, which led to clashes with security forces who fired on the crowd. The protests escalated into a rebellion that spread across the country, with the forces opposing Gaddafi establishing an interim governing body, the National Transitional Council.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mustafa Abdul Jalil</span> De facto leader of Libya from 2011 to 2012

Mustafa Abdul Jalil is a Libyan politician who was the Chairman of the National Transitional Council from 5 March 2011 until its dissolution on 8 August 2012. This position meant he was de facto head of state during a transitional period after the fall of Muammar Gaddafi's government in the Libyan Civil War, and until the handover of power to the General National Congress.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of the 2011 Libyan Civil War and military intervention (16 August – 23 October)</span>

The Libyan Civil War began on 17 February 2011 as a civil protest and later evolved into a widespread uprising. By mid-August, anti-Gaddafi forces effectively supported by a NATO-led international coalition were ascendant in Tripolitania, breaking out of the restive Nafusa Mountains in the south to mount an offensive toward the coast and advancing from Misrata on loyalist-held cities and villages from the north and east.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Transitional Council</span> 2011–2012 de facto government of Libya

The National Transitional Council (NTC) was a transitional government established in the 2011 Libyan civil war. The rebel forces overthrew the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya of Muammar Gaddafi. The NTC governed Libya for a period of ten months after the end of the war, holding elections to a General National Congress on 7 July 2012, and handing power to the newly elected assembly on 8 August.

Khamis Gaddafi was the seventh and youngest son of former Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, and the military commander in charge of the Khamis Brigade of the Libyan Army. He was part of his father's inner circle. During the Libyan Civil War in 2011, he was a major target for opposition forces trying to overthrow his father.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mahmoud Jibril</span> Libyan politician (1952–2020)

Mahmoud Jibril el-Warfally, also transcribed Jabril or Jebril or Gebril, was a Libyan politician who served as the interim Prime Minister of Libya for seven and a half months during the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi and the Libyan Civil War, chairing the executive board of the National Transitional Council (NTC) from 5 March to 23 October 2011. He also served as the Head of International Affairs. As of July 2012, Jibril was the head of one of the largest political parties in Libya, the National Forces Alliance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moussa Ibrahim</span> Libyan political figure (born 1974)

Moussa Ibrahim Gaddafi is a Libyan political figure who rose to international attention in 2011 as Muammar Gaddafi's Information Minister and official spokesman, serving in this role until the government was toppled the same year in the Libyan Civil War. Ibrahim held frequent press conferences in the course of the war, denouncing rebel forces and the NATO-led military intervention, often in defiant and impassioned tones. His status and whereabouts remained unknown following the Battle of Tripoli in which the Gaddafi government was overthrown, although there were several claims and subsequent refutations of his capture. Eventually, in late 2014, it was discovered he was in Egypt before he was deported and fled to Serbia. On 12 January 2015 Moussa Ibrahim spoke publicly by video link at a political event hosted at the Committee Rooms Houses of Parliament, Westminster, London from an undisclosed location, also the Director of Private Security Company.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Tripoli (2011)</span> Battle of the First Libyan Civil War

The Battle of Tripoli, sometimes referred to as the Fall of Tripoli, was a military confrontation in Tripoli, Libya, between loyalists of Muammar Gaddafi, the longtime leader of Libya, and the National Transitional Council, which was attempting to overthrow Gaddafi and take control of the capital. The battle began on 20 August 2011, six months after the First Libyan Civil War started, with an uprising within the city; rebel forces outside the city planned an offensive to link up with elements within Tripoli, and eventually take control of the nation's capital.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi</span>

From 1969 to 2011, the politics of Libya were determined de facto by Muammar Gaddafi, who had been in power since his overthrow of the Kingdom of Libya in 1969.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aftermath of the Libyan civil war (2011)</span> Events following the conclusion of the First Libyan Civil War

The aftermath of the 2011 Libyan civil war has been characterized by marked change in the social and political order of Libya after the overthrow and killing of Muammar Gaddafi in the civil war that was fought in Libya in 2011. The country has been subject to ongoing proliferation of weapons, Islamic insurgencies, sectarian violence, and lawlessness, with spillovers affecting neighboring countries including Mali.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2012 Libyan parliamentary election</span>

Elections for a General National Congress (GNC) were held in Libya on 7 July 2012, having been postponed from 19 June. They were the first elections since the overthrow and death of longtime ruler Muammar Gaddafi a year earlier, the first free national elections since 1952, and only the second free national elections since Libya gained independence in 1951.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">General National Congress</span> The former legislative authority of Libya

The General National Congress or General National Council was the legislative authority of Libya for two years following the end of the First Libyan Civil War. It was elected by popular vote on 7 July 2012, and took power from the National Transitional Council on 8 August.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Libya–Philippines relations</span> Bilateral relations

The Libya–Philippines relations refers to the bilateral relationship between the State of Libya and the Republic of the Philippines. Libya has an embassy in Manila and the Philippines has an embassy in Tripoli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gaddafi loyalism</span> Sympathetic sentiment towards the overthrown government of Muammar Gaddafi

Gaddafi loyalism, in a wider political and social sense also known as the Green resistance, consists of sympathetic sentiment towards the overthrown government of Muammar Gaddafi, who was killed in October 2011, and his Third International Theory. Despite Muammar Gaddafi's death, his legacy and Jamahiriya ideology still maintains a popular appeal both inside and outside Libya into the present day. Regardless, the Western sentiment has largely been that this continued support may contribute to some of the ongoing violence in Libya.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Government of National Accord</span> Government of Libya

The Government of National Accord was an interim government for Libya that was formed under the terms of the Libyan Political Agreement, a United Nations–led initiative, signed on 17 December 2015. The agreement was unanimously endorsed by the United Nations Security Council, which welcomed the formation of a Presidency Council for Libya and recognized the Government of National Accord as the sole legitimate executive authority in Libya. On 31 December 2015, Chairman of the Libyan House of Representatives, Aguila Saleh Issa declared his support for the Libyan Political Agreement. The General National Congress has criticized the GNA on multiple fronts as biased in favor of its rival parliament the House of Representatives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Popular Front for the Liberation of Libya</span> Political party in Libya

The Popular Front for the Liberation of Libya is a Gaddafi loyalist militia and political party that aims to elect Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, son of the late Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, as president of Libya.

References

  1. ↑ Pelham, Nicolas (February 2015). "Libya Against Itself". The New York Review of Books. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  2. 1 2 Kingsley, Patrick (17 December 2015). "Libyan politicians sign UN peace deal to unify rival governments". The Guardian.
  3. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 10 February 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  4. ↑ "Libya: Freedom in the World 2017 Country Report". Freedom House. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
  5. ↑ "Libya: Freedom in the World 2022 Country Report". Freedom House. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
  6. ↑ "Polity IV Regime Trends: Libya, 1951-2013". systemicpeace.org. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
  7. ↑ "PolityProject". systemicpeace.org. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
  8. ↑ Fetouri, Mustafa (30 June 2014). "Poor election turnout sign of Libya's despair". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  9. ↑ "Libya's outgoing parliament elects PM". 25 August 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  10. ↑ "Libyan capital under Islamist control after Tripoli airport seized". The Guardian. 24 August 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  11. 1 2 "Libya faces chaos as top court rejects elected assembly". Reuters. 6 November 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  12. ↑ "Libyan parliament defies supreme court ruling". Al Arabiya. 6 November 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  13. ↑ Benotman, Noman (24 October 2014). "Libya has become the latest Isil conquest". The Telegraph. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  14. ↑ "Baghdadi vs. Zawahri: Battle for Global Jihad". U.S. News & World Report. 1 December 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  15. ↑ Moore, Jack (29 January 2015). "Al-Qaeda 'Islamic Police' on Patrol in Libyan City Contested With ISIS". Newsweek. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  16. ↑ "Libya's government holed up in a 1970s hotel". BBC News. 16 October 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  17. ↑ "The next failed state". The Economist. 10 January 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  18. ↑ Murray, Rebecca (16 February 2015). "Libya anniversary: 'The situation is just terrible'". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  19. ↑ Anderson, Jon Lee (23 February 2015). "The Unravelling". The New Yorker. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  20. ↑ "Libya – Majlis Al-Nuwaab (House of Representatives)". Inter-Parliamentary Union. 21 February 2017. Archived from the original on 28 January 2018. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  21. ↑ Michel Cousins (24 July 2012). "National Congress to meet on 8 August: NTC". Libya Herald. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  22. ↑ "NTC to Transfer Power to Newly-Elected Libyan Assembly August 8". Tripoli Post . 2 August 2012. Archived from the original on 7 August 2012. Retrieved 4 August 2012.
  23. ↑ Esam Mohamed (8 August 2012). "Libya's transitional rulers hand over power". Boston.com. Associated Press . Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  24. ↑ "Libya elections: Do any of the parties have a plan?". BBC News. 6 July 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
  25. ↑ Margaret Coker (22 June 2012). "Libya Election Panel Battles Ghosts". The Wall Street Journal .
  26. ↑ "Libya leader Magarief vows to disband illegal militias". BBC News. 23 September 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013. Mr Magarief, the parliamentary speaker who acts as head of state until elections next year.
  27. ↑ "Libya assembly votes for Sharia law". Al Jazeera.
  28. ↑ "Congress votes to replace itself with new House of Representatives". Libya Herald. 30 March 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2014.
  29. ↑ "Rival Libyan lawmakers sign proposal for peace deal". Yahoo. Reuters. 6 December 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
  30. ↑ "Rebels dismiss election offer, NATO pounds Tripoli". Reuters. 16 June 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
  31. ↑ "Ferocious battles in Libya as national council meets for first time". NewsCore. 6 March 2011. Archived from the original on 22 August 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
  32. ↑ "Libya declares 'liberation,' path to elections, constitution". Los Angeles Times. 23 October 2011. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  33. ↑ "Sun, 23 Oct 2011, 17:09 GMT+3 – Libya". Al Jazeera Blogs. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  34. ↑ High National Election Commission: Press Release 16. June 2012 Archived 4 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  35. ↑ "Libyan Election Party List Results: Seats Per Party by District" (PDF). POMED. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 29 May 2013.
  36. ↑ Beaumont, Peter (3 December 2011), "Political Islam poised to dominate the new world bequeathed by Arab spring", The Guardian, retrieved 31 January 2012
  37. ↑ Spencer, Richard (19 November 2011), "Libyan cleric announces new party on lines of 'moderate' Islamic democracy", The Telegraph, retrieved 31 January 2012
  38. ↑ "First Islamist party emerges in Libya". Hurriyet Daily News. 11 January 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
  39. ↑ Federalists launch political party, 1 August 2012, retrieved 2 August 2012
  40. ↑ Country Profile: Libya ( PDF ). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (April 2005). PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  41. ↑ Samuels, David (2021). Comparative Politics (2nd ed.). Pearson. p. 123. ISBN   978-0-13-752727-4.
  42. ↑ Geddes, Barbara (1999). "What Do We Know About Democratization After Twenty Years?". Annual Review of Political Science.
  43. ↑ Geddes, Barbara (1999). "What Do We Know About Democratization After Twenty Years?". Annual Review of Political Science. 2: 115–144. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.115.
  44. ↑ "Libya Revolt of 2011 | History, War, Timeline, & Map | Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
  45. ↑ Samuels, David (2021). Comparative Politics (2nd ed.). Pearson. p. 130. ISBN   978-0-13-752727-4.
  46. ↑ Interpol File No.: 2011/108/OS/CCC Archived 23 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine , 4 March 2011.
  47. ↑ "NTC Demands Niger Returns Saadi, Officials from Al Qathafi Regime". Tripoli Post. 16 September 2011. Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
  48. ↑ "Former Libyan PM arrested, jailed in Tunisia". Taipei Times. 24 September 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
  49. ↑ MacLean, William (11 September 2011). "Exclusive: Gaddafi spy chief Dorda arrested". Reuters. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
  50. ↑ "Saif al-Arab: A playboy known for his hard-living ways". London. The Independent. 2 May 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
  51. ↑ "Gaddafi's feared son Khamis 'confirmed dead', claims NTC". The Daily Telegraph. London. 4 September 2011. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
  52. ↑ El Gamal, Rania (23 October 2011). "Clues to Gaddafi's death concealed from public view". Reuters. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.