Proso millet

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Proso millet
Mature Proso Millet Panicles.jpg
Proso millet panicles
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Panicoideae
Genus: Panicum
Species:
P. miliaceum
Binomial name
Panicum miliaceum
L.
Synonyms [1]
  • Leptoloma miliacea(L.) Smyth
  • Milium esculentumMoench nom. illeg.
  • Milium panicumMill. nom. illeg.
  • Panicum asperrimumFisch.
  • Panicum asperrimumFischer ex Jacq.
  • Panicum densepilosumSteud.
  • Panicum miliumPers. nom. illeg.
  • Panicum ruderale(Kitag.) D.M.Chang
  • Panicum spontaneumZhuk. nom. inval.
Panicum miliaceum (MHNT) Panicum miliaceum MHNT.BOT.2015.34.20.jpg
Panicum miliaceum (MHNT)

Panicum miliaceum is a grain crop with many common names, including proso millet, broomcorn millet, common millet, hog millet, Kashfi millet, red millet, and white millet. [2] Archaeobotanical evidence suggests millet was first domesticated about 10,000 BP in Northern China. [3] Major cultivated areas include Northern China, Himachal Pradesh of India, [4] Nepal, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, the Middle East, Turkey, Romania, and the Great Plains states of the United States. [5] About 500,000 acres (200,000 hectares) are grown each year. [6] [ better source needed ] The crop is notable both for its extremely short lifecycle, with some varieties producing grain only 60 days after planting, [7] and its low water requirements, producing grain more efficiently per unit of moisture than any other grain species tested. [7] [8] The name "proso millet" comes from the pan-Slavic general and generic name for millet (Serbo-Croatian : proso/просо, Czech : proso, Polish : proso, Russian : просо).

Contents

Proso millet is a relative of foxtail millet, pearl millet, maize, and sorghum within the grass subfamily Panicoideae. While all of these crops use C4 photosynthesis, the others all employ the NADP-ME as their primary carbon shuttle pathway, while the primary C4 carbon shuttle in proso millet is the NAD-ME pathway.

Evolutionary history

Panicum miliaceum is a tetraploid species with a base chromosome number of 18, twice the base chromosome number of diploid species within its genus Panicum . [9] The species appears to be an allotetraploid resulting from a wide hybrid between two different diploid ancestors. [10] One of the two subgenomes within proso millet appears to have come from either P. capillare or a close relative of that species. The second subgenome does not show close homology to any known diploid Panicum species, but some unknown diploid ancestor apparently also contributed a copy of its genome to a separate allotetraploid species P. repens (torpedo grass). [10] The two subgenomes within proso millet are estimated to have diverged 5.6 million years ago. [11] However, the species has experienced only limited amounts of fractionation and copies of most genes are still retained on both subgenomes. [11] A sequenced version of the proso millet genome, estimated to be around 920 megabase pairs in size, was published in 2019. [11]

Domestication and history of cultivation

Map of the world showing approximate centers of origin of agriculture and its spread in prehistory: the Fertile Crescent (11,000 BP), the Yangtze and Yellow River basins (9,000 BP), the New Guinea Highlands (9,000-6,000 BP), Central Mexico (5,000-4,000 BP), Northern South America (5,000-4,000 BP), sub-Saharan Africa (5,000-4,000 BP, exact location unknown), and eastern North America (4,000-3,000 BP). Centres of origin and spread of agriculture.svg
Map of the world showing approximate centers of origin of agriculture and its spread in prehistory: the Fertile Crescent (11,000 BP), the Yangtze and Yellow River basins (9,000 BP), the New Guinea Highlands (9,000–6,000 BP), Central Mexico (5,000–4,000 BP), Northern South America (5,000–4,000 BP), sub-Saharan Africa (5,000–4,000 BP, exact location unknown), and eastern North America (4,000–3,000 BP).

Weedy forms of proso millet are found throughout central Asia, covering a widespread area from the Caspian Sea east to Xinjiang and Mongolia. These may represent the wild progenitor of proso millet or feral escapes from domesticated production. [13] : 83  Indeed, in the United States, weedy proso millet, representing feral escapes from cultivation, are now common, suggesting current proso millet cultivars retain the potential to revert, similar to the pattern seen for weedy rice.[ citation needed ] Currently, the earliest archeological evidence for domesticated proso millet comes from the Cishan site in semiarid north east China around 8,000 BCE. [3] Because early varieties of proso millet had such a short lifecycle, as little as 45 days from planting to harvest, they are thought to have made it possible for seminomadic tribes to first adopt agriculture, forming a bridge between hunter-gatherer-focused lifestyles and early agricultural civilizations. [14] Archaeological charred grains of common millet were found in several Neolithic sites in Europe and Transcaucasia but radiocarbon dates obtained thanks to AMS method directly from the grains, indicated that it appeared in that area in the 2nd millennium BC. [15] [16] [17]

Cultivation

Proso millet is a relatively low-demanding crop, and diseases are not known; consequently, it is often used in organic farming systems in Europe. In the United States, it is often used as an intercrop. Thus, proso millet can help to avoid a summer fallow, and continuous crop rotation can be achieved. Its superficial root system and its resistance to atrazine residue make proso millet a good intercrop between two water- and pesticide-demanding crops. The stubbles of the last crop, by allowing more heat into the soil, result in a faster and earlier millet growth. While millet occupies the ground, because of its superficial root system, the soil can replenish its water content for the next crop. Later crops, for example, a winter wheat, can in turn benefit from the millet stubble, which act as snow accumulators. [18] P. miliaceum is commonly classified into five races, miliaceum, patentissimum, contractum, compactum, and ovatum. [19]

Climate and soil requirements

Due to its C4 photosynthetic system, proso millet is thermophilic like maize, so shady locations of the field should be avoided. It is sensitive to temperatures lower than 10 to 13 °C (50 to 55 °F). Proso millet is highly drought-resistant, which makes it of interest to regions with low water availability and longer periods without rain. [20] [21] The soil should be light or medium-heavy. Due to its flat root systems, soil compaction must be avoided. Furthermore, proso millet does not tolerate soil wetness caused by dammed-up water. [21]

A 2019 study found different cultivars have significantly different effects on rhizosphere assemblage, and also that Proteobacteria , Bacteroidetes , Chloroflexi , Gemmatimonadetes , Firmicutes , Verrucomicrobia , and Planctomycetes are the most common members, in declining order. [22] [23]

Seedbed and sowing

The seedbed should be finely crumbled as for sugar beet and rapeseed. [20] In Europe, proso millet is sowed between mid-April and the end of May. About 500 grams per acre (44 oz/ha) of seeds are required, which is roughly 500 per square metre (2,000,000/acre). In organic farming, this amount should be increased if a harrow weeder is used. For sowing, the usual sowing machines can be used similarly to how they are used for other crops such as wheat. A distance between the rows of 16 to 25 centimetres (6.3 to 9.8 in) is recommended if the farmer uses an interrow cultivator. The sowing depth should be 1.5 to 2 centimetres (0.59 to 0.79 in) in optimal soil or 3 to 4 centimetres (1.2 to 1.6 in) in dry soil. Rolling of the ground after sowing is helpful for further cultivation. [20] Cultivation in no-till farming systems is also possible and often practiced in the United States. Sowing then can be done two weeks later. [18]

White Proso Millet.jpg

Field management

Only a few diseases and pests are known to attack proso millet, but they are not economically important. Weeds are a bigger problem. The critical phase is in juvenile development. The formation of the grains happens in the 3- to 5-leaf stage. After that, all nutrients should be available for the millet, so preventing the growth of weeds is necessary. In conventional farming, herbicides may be used. In organic farming, harrow weeder or interrow cultivator use is possible, but special sowing parameters are needed. [20] For good crop development, fertilization with 50 to 75 kilograms (110 to 165 lb) nitrogen per hectare is recommended. [21] Planting proso millet in a crop rotation after maize should be avoided due to its same weed spectrum. Because proso millet is an undemanding crop, it may be used at the end of the rotation. [20]

Harvesting and postharvest treatments

Harvest time is at the end of August until mid-September. Determining the best harvest date is not easy because all the grains do not ripen simultaneously. The grains on the top of the panicle ripen first, while the grains in the lower parts need more time, making compromise and harvest necessary to optimize yield. [20] Harvesting can be done with a conventional combine harvester with the moisture content of the grains around 15-20%. Usually, proso millet is mowed into windrows first, since the plants are not dry like wheat. There, they can wither, which makes the threshing easier. Then the harvest is done with a pickup attached to a combine. [20] Possible yields are between 2.5 and 4.5 tonnes per hectare (1.00 and 1.79 long ton/acre; 1.1 and 2.0 short ton/acre) under optimal conditions. Studies in Germany showed that even higher yields can be attained. [20]

Geographical distribution

In the United States, as of 2015, the total cultivated area of proso millet was 204,366 hectares (505,000 acres), mostly in the Great Plains states. [5] The top three producers in 2015 were Colorado, Nebraska, and South Dakota, with 109,265 hectares (270,000 acres), 42,492 hectares (105,000 acres), and 28,328 hectares (70,000 acres). [5] Historically grown as animal and bird seed, as of 2020, it has found a market as an organic gluten-free grain. [24]

Proso millet is one of the few types of millet not cultivated in Africa. [25]

As food and drink

Cooked rice with proso millet Gijang-bap.jpg
Cooked rice with proso millet

Humans

In Inner Mongolia and northwestern Shanxi, China, fermented proso millet porridge known as "suan zhou" (酸粥) is popular. Millet is soaked to allow fermentation, then water is emptied to obtain porridge. The emptied water is served as a millet drink called "suan mi tang" (酸米湯). The porridge is eaten alongside pickles, e.g. turnips, carrots, radish and celery. The porridge may be stirred-fried and is called "chao suan zhou" (炒酸粥). The porridge may also be steamed into solids known as "suan lao fan" (酸撈飯). While the traditional grain is proso millet, it is mixed with rice when available. Many folk idioms of sourness derive from this dish. [26] [27]

In the United States, proso millet is used to brew gluten-free beer, being mixed with other grains to produce a texture. [28] [29]

Livestock and poultry

Proso millet is primarily grown as livestock and poultry fodder. As food it is very deficient in lysine and needs complementation. Proso millet is also a poor fodder due to its low leaf-to-stem ratio and a possible irritant effect due to its hairy stem. Foxtail millet, having a higher leaf-to-stem ratio and less hairy stems, is preferred as fodder, particularly the variety called moha, which is a high-quality fodder.

Nutrition

Millet flour
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,597 kJ (382 kcal)
75.1 g
Dietary fiber 3.5 g
Fat
4.2 g
10.8 g
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
33%
0.4 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
5%
0.07 mg
Niacin (B3)
38%
6 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
26%
1.3 mg
Vitamin B6
22%
0.37 mg
Folate (B9)
11%
42 μg
Vitamin E
1%
0.11 mg
Vitamin K
1%
0.8 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
1%
14 mg
Iron
22%
3.9 mg
Magnesium
28%
119 mg
Manganese
43%
1 mg
Phosphorus
23%
285 mg
Potassium
7%
224 mg
Sodium
0%
4 mg
Zinc
24%
2.6 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water8.7 g
Full Report of USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [30] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [31]

Millet flour is 9% water, 75% carbohydrates, 11% protein, and 4% fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), millet flour supplies 382 calories, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of several B vitamins and dietary minerals (table).

The demand for more diverse and healthier cereal-based foods is increasing, particularly in affluent countries. [32] Protein content in proso millet grains is comparable with that of wheat, but the share of some essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and methionine) is substantially higher in proso millet. [32] Among the most commonly consumed products are ready-to-eat breakfast cereals made purely from millet flour, [20] [32] and a variety of noodles and bakery products that are, however, often produced from mixtures with wheat flour to improve their sensory quality. [32]

Fermentation products

Starch derived from millets has been shown to be a good substrate for fermentation and malting with grains having similar starch contents as wheat grains. [33] One study suggested that starch derived from proso millet can be converted to ethanol with an only moderately lower efficiency than starch derived from corn. [34] As proso millet is compatible with low-input agriculture, cultivation on marginal soils for biofuel production may present a new market for farmers. [34]

Pests

Insect pests include: [35]

Seedling pests
Stem borers
Leaf feeders
Earhead feeders
Other pests

As a weed

Weedy and feral types are classified as Panicum ruderale (Kitag.) Chang comb. Nov. or Panicum miliaceum subsp. ruderale. [38] A 2018 report developed a morphometric analysis method which distinguishes seeds of P. miliaceum and P. ruderale on the basis of micromorphology. [38] [39]

Local names

Native names for proso millet in its cultivated area include:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wheat</span> Genus of grass cultivated for grain

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Millet</span> Group of grasses (food grain)

Millets are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe Paniceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finger millet</span> Species of grass

Finger millet is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and self-pollinating species probably evolved from its wild relative Eleusine africana.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oat</span> Cool weather staple grain, animal feed

The oat, sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name. Oats appear to have been domesticated as a secondary crop, as their seeds resembled those of other cereals closely enough for them to be included by early cultivators. Oats tolerate cold winters less well than cereals such as wheat, barley, and rye, but need less summer heat and more rain, making them important in areas such as Northwest Europe that have cool wet summers. They can tolerate low-nutrient and acid soils. Oats grow thickly and vigorously, allowing them to outcompete many weeds, and compared to other cereals are relatively free from diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Teff</span> Edible annual grass native to the Horn of Africa

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neolithic Revolution</span> Transition in human history from hunter-gatherer to settled peoples

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pearl millet</span> Species of cultivated grass

Pearl millet is the most widely grown type of millet. It has been grown in Africa and the Indian subcontinent since prehistoric times. The center of diversity, and suggested area of domestication, for the crop is in the Sahel zone of West Africa. Recent archaeobotanical research has confirmed the presence of domesticated pearl millet on the Sahel zone of northern Mali between 2500 and 2000 BC. 2023 was the International Year of Millets, declared by the United Nations General Assembly in 2021.

<i>Digitaria exilis</i> Species of grass

Digitaria exilis, referred to as findi or fundi in areas of Africa, such as The Gambia, with English common names white fonio, fonio millet, and hungry rice or acha rice, is a grass species. It is the most important of a diverse group of wild and domesticated Digitaria species known as fonio that are harvested in the savannas of West Africa. The grains are very small. It has potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable use of the land. Despite its valuable characteristics and widespread cultivation, fonio has generally received limited research and development attention, which is also why the species is sometimes referred to as an underutilized crop.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foxtail millet</span> Species of grass

Foxtail millet, scientific name Setaria italica, is an annual grass grown for human food. It is the second-most widely planted species of millet, and the most grown millet species in Asia. The oldest evidence of foxtail millet cultivation was found along the ancient course of the Yellow River in Cishan, China, carbon dated to be from around 8,000 years before present. Foxtail millet has also been grown in India since antiquity.

<i>Echinochloa crus-galli</i> Species of plant

Echinochloa crus-galli is a type of wild grass originating from tropical Asia that was formerly classified as a type of panicum grass. It is commonly known as cockspur, barnyard millet, Japanese millet, water grass, common barnyard grass, or simply "barnyard grass". This plant can grow to 1.5 m in height and has long, flat leaves which are often purplish at the base. Most stems are upright, but some will spread out over the ground. Stems are flattened at the base. The seed heads are a distinctive feature, often purplish, with large millet-like seeds in crowded spikelets.

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<i>Paspalum scrobiculatum</i> Species of grass

Paspalum scrobiculatum, commonly called kodo millet or koda millet, is an annual grain that is grown primarily in Nepal and also in India, Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, and in West Africa from where it originated. It is grown as a minor crop in most of these areas, with the exception of the Deccan plateau in India where it is grown as a major food source. It is a very hardy crop that is drought tolerant and can survive on marginal soils where other crops may not survive, and can supply 450–900 kg of grain per hectare. Kodo millet has large potential to provide nourishing food to subsistence farmers in Africa and elsewhere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maize</span> Species of grass cultivated as a food crop

Maize, also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native Americans planted it alongside beans and squashes in the Three Sisters polyculture. The leafy stalk of the plant gives rise to male inflorescences or tassels which produce pollen, and female inflorescences called ears. The ears yield grain, known as kernels or seeds. In modern commercial varieties, these are usually yellow or white; other varieties can be of many colors.

<i>Panicum sumatrense</i> Species of grass

Panicum sumatrense, known as little millet, is a species of millet in the family Poaceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grain</span> Edible dry seed

A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit (caryopsis) – with or without an attached hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and legumes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adzuki bean</span> East and south Asian crop

Vigna angularis, also known as the adzuki bean(Japanese: 小豆, azuki, Uncommon アヅキ, adzuki), azuki bean, aduki bean, red bean, or red mung bean, is an annual vine widely cultivated throughout East Asia for its small bean. The cultivars most familiar in East Asia have a uniform red color, but there are white, black, gray, and variously mottled varieties.

<i>Atherigona</i> Genus of flies

Atherigona is a genus of flies in the family Muscidae.

Atherigona pulla, the proso millet shoot fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae. The larvae feed on the central growing shoots of crops such as proso millet and little millet. It is found in South Asia.

References

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  28. ↑ Santra, D.K.; Rose, D.J. (2013). "Alternative Uses of Proso Millet" (PDF). University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension. p. 2.
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  33. ↑ Rose DJ, Santra DK (2013). "Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) fermentation for fuel ethanol production". Industrial Crops and Products. 43 (1): 602–605. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.08.010. S2CID   1627015.
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  35. ↑ Kalaisekar, A (2017). Insect pests of millets: systematics, bionomics, and management. London: Elsevier. ISBN   978-0-12-804243-4. OCLC   967265246.
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