The Odyssey, an epic poem of ancient Greek literature attributed to Homer, has a long history of translation. The inaccessibility of Homeric Greek to most readers has driven continued interest in translations, which have played a crucial role in the epic's cultural penetration through adaptation, selective reading, and linguistic transformation. The artificial literary nature of Homeric Greek presents some challenges for translators. Approaches to translation range from literal equivalence—attempts to replicate the formal meaning of the original text—to dynamic or communicative equivalence, which tries to translate the cultural context; translators also differ in their preferences for prose or rhyme schemes, with some opting for intermediary variants such as free verse and blank verse.
The language of the Homeric epics is inaccessible to the vast majority of readers, but interest in them, and related stories, remains quite strong. Susan Bassnett suggests that they owe their cultural penetration to adaptation, selective reading, and translation itself.[1] Richard Armstrong argues that modern editions of the poems misled readers into believing there was a true "original" text—he says that in reality, translational reinterpretation is a central feature of the epic genre.[2] Argentine essayist Jorge Luis Borges was a pioneer in analyzing the translations of the Odyssey: in a 1957 essay, he defined the whole corpus as an "international library", noting its particular relevance to the development of English literature.[3] Formal translation studies appeared as an academic discipline in the 1970s, but interest in translational scholarship increased substantially in the early twenty-first century.[4] Earlier academic work relied on individual case studies, but systematic analysis in the twenty-first century have opened new interpretations and theoretical frameworks.[5]
Armstrong summarises the traditional understanding of translational approaches:
Literal translation (or "literal equivalence") is the replacement of source words with equivalent language from the target. Translator aim to replicate the expression and formal meaning of the original text. There are challenges with this approach. Firstly, Homeric Greek was never used by real people—it was an artificial literary language (Kunstsprache). Some words also lose connotative meanings that are lost when translated literally.[a]
Dynamic or communicative equivalence, or "sense-for-sense translation", involves preserving the overall effect and purpose of the original text rather than finding direct analogues for words or maintaining sentence structure.[7]
Spanish scholar Javier Franco Aixelá observed in 2012 that: "the Odyssey, or rhymed poetry in general, was translated mostly in rhymed verse in the past and mostly in prose or free verse today", noting that this is due to "the conditions of reception of the society for which it is translated. [...] translating the Odyssey into epic verse is not at all impossible, although it may be socially inconvenient in 21st-century Spain."[8] Different formats of translations also allow secondary authors to introduce their own interpretations into the epic. That issue was highlighted by Edith Hall, who noted that a history of Homeric versions also teaches one "to be wary of translators, convinced that they understand the moral outlines of the story and have often imposed meanings of their own".[9]
The Odyssey has a documented translation history stretching back to antiquity.[10] This tradition was itself carried into legend by the 1st century AD, when Dio Chrysostom claimed that the peoples of Classical India had integrated translations from the Odyssey into their own folklore.[11] The ancient conception of translation differs our modern perspective,[b] although the practices and customs were sometimes the same.[13] In the period, the epics were named by their first lines—a practice that indicates their widespread fame.[14]Livius Andronicus' Latin translation, Odusia, is one of the first Latin literary texts.[15] He is widely regarded as the creator of the Latin literary tradition,[16] and introduced a model of the epic genre to Roman society.[17] He changed the metre of the Homeric Greek from dactylic hexameter to Saturnian, which may have been a calculation decision to foster interest in the epic among Roman readers.[18] He may also have used his translation as a text in his own school.[19]
Livius was translating a text of foreign origin, but it was easier for Romans to accept because it seemed Roman. Additionally, its genre was less likely to be embroiled in the Roman politics that a historical epic could cause.[20] Not much is known about Odusia.[21] The first line is faithful to the Homeric Greek, even matching its word order.[22] He renders the adjective polytropon[c] as versutus (lit.'clever'),[23] and invokes the Camenae instead of the Muses.[28] Surviving fragments have a different tone to the Homeric Greek; Livius' also translocated some imagery from the Iliad into his Odyssey.[29][30] Some evidence suggests that he condensed the twenty-four constituent parts into one, which would mean it was not a full translation.[16]
As Hall remarks, "the two Homeric epics formed the basis of the education of everyone in ancient Mediterranean society from at least the seventh century BCE".[31]Michael von Albrecht says Odusia was "beaten into" a young Horace (65–8 BC) as part of his education.[32] Horace's Ars Poetica (lit.'Art of Poetry') relates how to translate properly, describing it as the process of making communal material private.[33] He thought poorly of literal translation.[34] Horace translated the opening lines of the Odyssey twice, with very different outputs. In Ars Poetica, he summarises the plot in a single line; in Epistles he uses nine.[23] His Ars Poetica translation omits polytropon entirely—McElduff describes this choice as Horace "correcting" Livius and demonstrating how to make a Greek text into a Roman one.[23]
There is a hexametricOdyssea that is a distinct from Livius' Odusia.[35] Entitled Odusia Latina hexametris non multo post Ennium exarata in its modern edition,[36] it survives only in four fragments.[35] It may represent an epitomization or more likely a set of excerpts of the Odyssey, which, unlike the Iliad, frequently circulated as selections of excerpts.[35]Edward Courtney, calling it Livius Refictus, considers it a reworking of Livius into hexameters under the influence of Ennius (fl.c.200 BC).[37] All the fragments are quotes from Priscian, citing Livius in Odyssea (or Odissia).[36][37] Neither the original Odyssey nor Livius's Odusia were divided into books, but the hexametric Oydssea was. The citations of Festus and Charisius to an Odyssia vetus (old Odyssey) are attempts to distinguish the original work of Livius from its hexametric competitor.[37] The Homeric translations of Polybius and Attius Labeo have not survived. Labeo's translations are known from the scholia of Persius (32–62 BC), who mocked him for his literal translations of both epics.[38][d]
Post-classical and Renaissance
Beyond classical antiquity and into the Byzantine era, the spread of the Greek language—and the consequent internal translation of the Homeric texts as it spread—played a central role in maintaining the Odyssey's relevancy and esteemed status. Armstrong says both epics may have dropped from knowledge otherwise, using Beowulf as an example of this fate.[2] Within the realm covered by Greek Byzantine culture, the epic required no translation, since "an educated Byzantine would have had no difficulty understanding the language of Homer."[40] Nonetheless, John Tzetzes, a 12th-century grammarian who ventured to uncover the obscured or supposedly esoteric meanings of Homer's poetry, once referred to his project as a "translation of Homer's verses".[41] While it participated in the transmission of the Greek Classics and had an independent translation movement, the Arab world was generally ignorant of Homer "beyond that he was a poet."[42] In the 10th century, at the height of the Abbasid Caliphate, Abu Sulayman Sijistani used Homer as a literary character, attributing him a number of aphorisms; "a few details" were added to this portrait by al-Qifti some three centuries later.[42] In the early 20th century, Arab scholars disputed each over the extent to which an 11th-century poet, al-Ma'arri, may have been inspired by the Odyssey (which implicitly suggests that he would have known the Homeric text in translation).[43]
The Odyssey may have been translated into Syriac, but the evidence is inconclusive. The 13th-century historian Barhebraeus records that Theophilus of Edessa (fl.c.780) translated "the two books of the poet Homer about the conquest of the city Ilion", which seemingly refers to the Iliad and Odyssey, since only the Odyssey mentions the fall of Troy.[44] Syriac quotations from Homer are found in the Rhetoric of Antony of Tagrit of 825 and one might be from the Odyssey.[45][46] The Kingdom of Georgia, located on the margin of the Byzantine cultural realm, also had its own translations of both the Iliad and the Odyssey into its native language; these were completed in the 11th or 12th centuries by an anonymous author.[47]Nicholas Sigeros provided Petrarch, a leading poet of the Italian Renaissance, with manuscripts of the Iliad and the Odyssey in 1354.[e] He unsuccessfully attempted to learn Greek,[48][49] and is believed to have been annotating his copy until the moment of his death.[40][50] Petrarch's correspondent Giovanni Boccaccio persuaded the monk Leontius Pilatus to produce translations in Latin prose—he finished the Iliad, but only came close to finishing the Odyssey.[48] Petrarch himself panned this version, expressing disappointment over its "its obscurity and crudeness".[51] More or less fragmentary translations were made by other early exponents of Renaissance humanism, including Coluccio Salutati, Leonardo Bruni, and Poliziano.[52]
In or about 1462, Francesco Griffolini made a new paraphrastic prose translation into Latin for Pope Pius II.[53] The first printed edition of the Odyssey in Greek was published in Milan 1488 by Demetrios Chalkokondyles, a Greek scholar resident in the Republic of Florence.[54] Other noted editions appeared for the Latin version, beginning with that printed by Johann Schott of Strasbourg; new Latin versions or adaptations were put out by Andreas Divus and Raffaele Maffei.[55] Divus' translation was in a simplified version of Latin, and did not include with it the Homeric Greek text.[56] A word-for-word rendition, it remained highly popular during those decades,[57] although similar translations by other writers remained in constant circulation. For example, Maffei's translation in Latin prose was printed at several European cities in the late-15th and early-16th century century, including Rome, Cologne and Antwerp.[57] Printed translations for modern European languages surged in popularity in the 16th century;[57] the inaugural book of this category was probably Simon Schaidenreisser[de]'s German print of 1537.[55] Many of this group were only partial translations;[58] parts eight through twelve of the poem (Odysseus' account of his adventures) were the most commonly translated, which Jessica Wolfe says indicates that they were "read for recreation and not serious study". Most of these were written in Latin.[59]
Renaissance readers particularly emphasised elements of colonial expansion and sea travel.[60] Running parallel to the late Renaissance, the Age of Discovery brought Europeans and their cultures in contact with non-seafaring empires, including Ashikaga Japan. Based on unusual similarities, scholars such as Tsubouchi Shōyō and James T. Araki have proposed that the 16th-century Japanese epic of Yuriwaka is partly inspired by echoes from the Odyssey; Araki theorizes that the Homeric poem was circulated in Japan by the Jesuits, and then adapted by kōwakamai performers.[61] In 1550, Gonzalo Pérez, a high-ranking bureaucrat of the Spanish Empire, published in Salamanca his draft of the poem, which in all ran at 21,944 verses; named Ulixea (rather than the updated Odisea), it is viewed as the first translation of that poem not just in Spanish, but in any Romance language.[55] Philosopher Dirck Coornhert, active in the Habsburg Netherlands, published his Dutch translation in stages, from 1561—a "rather free" interpretation, it was done mainly from a Latin manuscript.[62]
Arthur Hall was the first to translate Homer into English: his translation of the Iliad's first ten books, which was published in 1581,[63] relied upon a French version.[64]George Chapman became the first writer to complete a translation of both epics into English after finishing his translation of the Odyssey.[65][66] These translations were published together in 1616, but were serialised earlier, and became the first modern translations to enjoy widespread success.[67] He worked on Homeric translation for most of his life,[68] and his work later inspired John Keats' sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" (1816).[69][70] It was similarly used as the narrative basis for Charles Lamb's retelling for children (1808), itself later weaved into James Joyce's Ulysses (1922).[71]
Dacier's translation of the Odyssey profoundly influenced the 1720s translation by Alexander Pope,[84] which he produced for financial reasons years after his Iliad.[85] Dacier did not speak English and used a poor translation to read Pope's translation; she condemned it in a prefatory note a new version of her Iliad. Pope, an admirer of Dacier, was hurt; she died in 1720 before he could respond.[80] Pope translated twelve books himself and divided the other twelve between Elijah Fenton and William Broome; the latter also provided annotations.[86][87] They were composed in heroic couplets—paired rhyming lines of iambic pentameter.[88] This information eventually leaked, harming his reputation and profits.[89] Armstrong describes a "battle of English poetic forms" following Pope's translation: William Cowper translated rendered the epics in blank verse, the non-rhyming schema used by John Milton for Paradise Lost. Armstrong describes this battle continuing into the 19th century.[88]
A new Italian translator of the Iliad, Melchiorre Cesarotti, proposed in the 1780s that the Odyssey was not worth the effort. In Cesarotti's reading, the story had the outward characteristics of a puerile "farce", rather than of a serious work of art.[90] Such critiques remained marginal, and both Homeric epics continued to rendered into the consolidating vernaculars of Europe, throughout the Age of Revolution. A "highly musical" version of the Odyssey was penned by Cesarotti's compatriot, Ippolito Pindemonte (1753–1828); he accepted some of the prevailing critiques of his day, introducing "moralizing interventions" in his treatment of the narrative.[91] Though he produced his own translation of the first book of the Odyssey in the 1820s, Giacomo Leopardi embraced a Romantic disapproval of Homer, whom he regarded as inferior to "Ossian".[92]
Victorian and modernist
In the 1810s, the initial four sections of the poem were translated into Swedish by Axel Gabriel Sjöström, who was active in the Grand Duchy of Finland.[93] This effort inspired Elias Lönnrot, who in the 1850s completed a larger and more literal translation of the Odyssey's sixth book into Finnish; he used hexametre, which was suited to Finnish prosody.[94] Before his death in 1852, Sveinbjörn Egilsson had completed the standard edition of the Odyssey in Icelandic, which borrowed heavily from Old Norse to match Homer's classical tone.[95] Pérez's Spanish translation was the only such version of the poem until 1837, when Mariano Esparza of Mexico published his own—followed fifty years later by more professional version, the work of Spanish classicist Federico Baraibar.[96] The first Portuguese-languageOdyssey was translated by the Brazilian journalist and politician Manuel Odorico Mendes[pt] (1799–1864), who also produced the first Portuguese versions of the Iliad, the Aeneid, and Virgil's entire poetic corpus.[97] Odorico combined the approaches of preceding Portuguese poets. The metre used was the decasyllable—an analogue to iambic pentameter―also employed by the 16th-century poet Luís de Camões in Os Lusíadas.[98] One controversial feature was the use of composite words, borrowed from Pindemonte, for the translation of epithets and other adjectives. According to Leonardo Antunes, the metre, together with the use of composite words, "created a translation that was harder to read than the actual Greek and Latin texts".[99]
Still in the 18th century, Bernardo Zamagna of Ragusa produced a widely circulated neo-Latin rendition of the Homeric poem.[100] The early 19th century brought Homeric studies to other areas of East-Central and Eastern Europe. Possibly the first attempt to complete a Romanian version was that of Ioan Barac in Austrian Transylvania (a manuscript dated to 1816); Alecu Beldiman of Moldavia completed an all-prose translation at some point before 1837 (his remained a manuscript version, as was the fragmentary version done in 1852 by Wallachia's Alexandru Odobescu).[101] In 1881, the adolescent George Coșbuc received a prize for his own Romanian version, inaugurating his long career as a translator of the classics.[102] Inspired by Italian versions, Coșbuc produced in all over 2,200 stanzas in rhyming verse, using either hendecasyllables or decasyllables, which made the text widely readable.[103]
In 1867, Leconte de Lisle made "the first modern translation" of the poem into French.[113] It marked a break with the European Homeric standard, which had generally favoured Latin names for the characters, by introducing characters under approximate renditions of their Greek names.[114] Late in the Victorian Era, Andrew Lang was attracted by Homeric themes and penned his own prose retelling of the Odyssey.[115] The subsequent emergence of modernist literature allowed various authors to engage in translation as conscious reinterpretation; in 1900, Samuel Butler completed new prose versions of both Homeric epics, which were mainly attempts to illustrate his contentious claim that their original author was in fact female.[116] A partial translation of the Odyssey's 11th part forms opens The Cantos, by the American poet Ezra Pound. Pound's translation was based on Andreas Divus' faithful word-for-word Latin Odyssey.[117][71] Massimo Cè writes that that Divus' faithful Latin translation has led some scholars to conclude that "we can treat both equally as source texts, with Divus acting as a window onto Homer", but Cè argues that, while Pound's language, meaning and metre is indebted to Divus' version, they differ substantially from the Homeric Greek Odyssey.[118] According to Hall, Pound made "his own version of [a] poet's traditional homage to the Odyssey as the very text that he rightly believed constitutes the source of the Western poetic subject."[119] Moreover, Pound's translation mingled the conventions of Latin and Anglo-Saxon poetry.[120]
In the early 20th century, several definitive translations appeared in languages that had already provided experiments in translation, as well as some new ventures (including Provençal, in 1907, Slovenian, in 1911, and Serbo-Croatian, in 1915).[66] Linguist Luis Segalá y Estalella[es] produced a new prose version in Spanish (1912), which remained highly popular, while a "careful" rendition into Catalan verse was completed by Carles Riba in 1919.[121] Informed by Joan Maragall's modern poetry, Riba's work endures as one of the most recognizable contributions to Catalan literature.[122]Norwegian renditions were completed by Arne Garborg in 1918 and Peter Østbye in 1922.[123] A LithuanianOdyssey, by Jeronimas Ralys[lt], came out out in 1921 and again in 1937.[124]
The first full version in Romanian, done by the Aromanian scholar George Murnu, appeared in print in 1924,[125] the same year that Józef Wittlin completed his Polish rendition. Wittlin revised his own work in several editions, down to 1957,[126] but overall maintained his quasi-political focus—which was to uphold Homer as an inspiration for the "Young Poland" school of writers, and to integrate the "old diction of folk ballads."[127] The French Homeric fund was augmented by a celebrated translation, completed in 1925 by Victor Bérard. Formally printed in rhythmical prose, it concealed French alexandrines,[128] and showed Bérard's direct familiarity with the Homeric landscape, which he had researched during his travels.[129] Ten years later, another version was co-authored by Médéric Dufour[fr] and Jeanne Raison.[130]
In succession to Pound, T. E. Lawrence, made famous by his participation in the Arab Revolt, dedicated himself to producing another English prose adaptation of the epic—feeling that only prose could still make its subject-matter approachable, and that his own soldierly career gave him a unique perspective on this.[131] The Lawrence text, published in 1932, was an indirect inspiration for composer Inglis Gundry, who produced his own verse translation, then set it to music as an opera.[132] In the 1940s, E. V. Rieu set out to make Homer accessible to new readers. Rieu's Odyssey was written in English prose and produced as the first entry in the mass-market paperback Penguin Classics series,[133] for which he was the founding editor.[134] Bassnett describes this release within the context of diminished interest in formal study of classical languages.[133] Rieu's translations were very successful; his prose approach inspired others in the post-war period,[134] but effectively discouraged any "aspiring verse translators of the Odyssey".[135] One exception was another American, Robert Fitzgerald, who "worked with dictionaries in order to analyse every resonance before translating the words, as he insisted, into another poem altogether."[135]
During the 1930s, Ettore Romagnoli completed an Italian Odyssey in "barbaric hexametre", "offering an effective rendering of the original"; his contribution was largely ignored in later decades, due to Romagnoli's public association with the fascist governments.[136]Ahmet Cevat Emre began working on a Turkish translation during the same decade, at the behest of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who wanted to raise his country's prestige in Europe; the result was a two-volume edition, published in 1941–1942 by the Turkish Language Association.[137] During the Second World War, portions of the Odyssey were again reworked into French by Robert Brasillach, whose overall contribution was later obscured by his association with Vichy France.[138] Published posthumously in his anthology of Greek poetry (around the same time as another translation, by Philippe Jaccottet),[130] the Brasillach effort came to be admired for his "perfect literary fidelity", and also noted for incorporating modern influences from Paul Claudel.[139]Augusts Ģiezens[lv] published a Latvian version in 1943,[140] and Gábor Devecseri[hu] completed a new Hungarian text in 1947.[108]
In postwar Italy, Cesare Pavese directed the effort for "an almost literal translation, line-by-line". He commissioned for this end Rosa Calzecchi Onesti, who published her version, done in rhythmical prose, in 1963 (thirteen years after her version of the Iliad).[122] The Odyssey was by then being translated into some languages for the first time, with various projects carried out inside the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc. In 1955, the Romanian communist regime vetted a people's edition of the Odyssey as translated by Eugen Lovinescu, published at the same time as Murnu's Iliad. Together, the two books sold an unusually high 50,000 copies by 1958.[141]Miroslav Okál produced a Slovak-languageOdyssey in 1962,[142] while a standardized Estonian edition saw print in 1963,[143] at the same time as the first complete Ukrainian translation—the latter authored by Borys Ten, a former prisoner in the Gulag.[144] A complete Odyssey in Serbian was published in 1966 by Miloš N. Đurić, and was immediately regarded as a major stylistic accomplishment.[100] Unusually, the poem appears to have never been translated or published in North Korea, though Lim Hak-su produced three successive Korean translations of the Iliad; this indifference replicates a similar pattern in the earlier colonial Chōsen, where "Homer's Odyssey was scarcely dealt with".[145] A Korean Odyssey only appeared in 1991.[66]
Another Turkish version appeared in 1970 as a collaboration between poets Azra Erhat and Abdul Kadir;[146] this was one year ahead of Shigeichi Kure's widely used Japanese translation, noted for its attempts at preserving Homer's wordplay in furigana.[147] No Arabic translations had yet appeared by 2009, though the epic had been "paraphrased" in prose by Anbara Salam Khalidi (1979) and Aiman Adil (2008).[148]José Manuel Pabón[es] gave a new Spanish translation in verse. Published in 1982, this work was influenced by modernist poetry, and by Riba, in its use of "accentual hexametres".[121]Luo Niansheng began translating the first Chinese-languageIliad in the late 1980s, but he died before completing it; his student Wang Huansheng finished the project; Wang's Odyssey followed in 1997.[149]William Neill's translation of parts of the Odyssey into Scots language (Tales frae the Odyssey O Homer),[150] published in 1991 by the Saltire Society, was inspired by Gavin Douglas' 16th-century translation. Hardwick uses Neill's work as an example of a translation "enhancing the target language and culture".[151]Moshe Ha-Elion—a survivor of the death marches and Auschwitz concentration camp—translated the Odyssey into Judaeo-Spanish, a language with very few speakers. His hexameter composition was published in two parts from 2011 to 2014.[10]
↑ Armstrong provides an example: "[...] the word κοίρανος means something like "king, ruler or leader" in a poetic context [...] but these are not workaday words, despite their denotative simplicity. To translate κοίρανος simply as "king, ruler" already shaves off a level of nuance, the grandeur of an old word for – from the perspectives of both a fifth-century BCE Athenian [...] – a defunct institution."[6]
↑ Siobhán McElduff says their terminology for translation was very broad, and none had the modern meaning of "translate": exprimo (squeeze out, press, translate); interpretor (explain, understand, interpret), muto (exchange, transform, translate); transfero (carry from place to place, transfer, translate; the Latin verb from which "translate" originates); and verto and its compound converto (revolve, turn, overturn, translate)."[12]
↑ This word has been interpreted in many ways. McElduff gives it as many-minded;[23] Thomas E. Jenkins relates it as "of many turns";[24]Irene de Jong provides "with many turns of the mind".[25] It connotes intellectual curiosity, cunning, and being well travelled.[26][27]
↑ The only surviving line of Labeo's Iliad is relayed by Persius' commentary; this material was probably chosen by Persius because it was literal across multiple axes: word choice, sentence structure, and literary technique.[39]
↑ Petrarch wrote in a letter: "Homer is mute to me, or, rather, I am deaf to him. Still, I enjoy just looking at him and often, embracing him and sighing, I say, 'O great man, how eagerly would I listen to you.'"[48]
↑ Voss produced translations of other classics, too, and eventually revised his version of Odyssey, but that received a less favourable reception.[75]
↑ Dacier's Iliad was highly allegorical,[78] and was published to positive reception; she provided historical and linguistic commentary alongside it.[79]
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