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Berkelium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Bk and atomic number 97. It is a member of the actinide and transuranium element series. It is named after the city of Berkeley, California, the location of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory where it was discovered in December 1949. Berkelium was the fifth transuranium element discovered after neptunium, plutonium, curium and americium.
Californium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Cf and atomic number 98. The element was first synthesized in 1950 at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, by bombarding curium with alpha particles. It is an actinide element, the sixth transuranium element to be synthesized, and has the second-highest atomic mass of all elements that have been produced in amounts large enough to see with the naked eye. The element was named after the university and the U.S. state of California.
Einsteinium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Es and atomic number 99. Einsteinium is a member of the actinide series and it is the seventh transuranium element. It was named in honor of Albert Einstein.
Tennessine is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Ts and atomic number 117. It is the second-heaviest known element and the penultimate element of the 7th period of the periodic table.
Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last common ancestor of those groups. The cladistic term for the same phenomenon is homoplasy. The recurrent evolution of flight is a classic example, as flying insects, birds, pterosaurs, and bats have independently evolved the useful capacity of flight. Functionally similar features that have arisen through convergent evolution are analogous, whereas homologous structures or traits have a common origin but can have dissimilar functions. Bird, bat, and pterosaur wings are analogous structures, but their forelimbs are homologous, sharing an ancestral state despite serving different functions.
C4 carbon fixation or the Hatch–Slack pathway is one of three known photosynthetic processes of carbon fixation in plants. It owes the names to the 1960s discovery by Marshall Davidson Hatch and Charles Roger Slack that some plants, when supplied with 14CO2, incorporate the 14C label into four-carbon molecules first.
C3 carbon fixation is the most common of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis, the other two being C4 and CAM. This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP, a 5-carbon sugar) into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction:
Curium (96Cm) is an artificial element with an atomic number of 96. Because it is an artificial element, a standard atomic weight cannot be given, and it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope synthesized was 242Cm in 1944, which has 146 neutrons.
Berkelium (97Bk) is an artificial element, and thus a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all artificial elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was 243Bk in 1949. There are 20 known radioisotopes, from 230Bk and 233Bk to 253Bk, and 6 nuclear isomers. The longest-lived isotope is 247Bk with a half-life of 1,380 years.
Ununennium (119Uue) has not yet been synthesised, so all data would be theoretical and a standard atomic weight cannot be given. Like all synthetic elements, it would have no stable isotopes.
Berkelium forms a number of chemical compounds, where it normally exists in an oxidation state of +3 or +4, and behaves similarly to its lanthanide analogue, terbium. Like all actinides, berkelium easily dissolves in various aqueous inorganic acids, liberating gaseous hydrogen and converting into the trivalent oxidation state. This trivalent state is the most stable, especially in aqueous solutions, but tetravalent berkelium compounds are also known. The existence of divalent berkelium salts is uncertain and has only been reported in mixed lanthanum chloride-strontium chloride melts. Aqueous solutions of Bk3+ ions are green in most acids. The color of the Bk4+ ions is yellow in hydrochloric acid and orange-yellow in sulfuric acid. Berkelium does not react rapidly with oxygen at room temperature, possibly due to the formation of a protective oxide surface layer; however, it reacts with molten metals, hydrogen, halogens, chalcogens and pnictogens to form various binary compounds. Berkelium can also form several organometallic compounds.
The evolution of photosynthesis refers to the origin and subsequent evolution of photosynthesis, the process by which light energy is used to assemble sugars from carbon dioxide and a hydrogen and electron source such as water. The process of photosynthesis was discovered by Jan Ingenhousz, a Dutch-born British physician and scientist, first publishing about it in 1779.
Californium(III) bromide is an inorganic compound, a salt with a chemical formula CfBr3. Like in californium oxide (Cf2O3) and other californium halides, including californium(III) fluoride (CfF3), californium(III) chloride, and californium(III) iodide (CfI3), the californium atom has an oxidation state of +3.
Berkelium(IV) oxide, also known as berkelium dioxide, is a chemical compound with the formula BkO2. This compound slowly decays to californium(IV) oxide. It can be converted to berkelium(III) oxide by hydrogen reduction at 600 °C.
Berkelium(III) nitrate is the berkelium salt of nitric acid with the formula Bk(NO3)3. It commonly forms the tetrahydrate, Bk(NO3)3·4H2O, which is a light green solid. If heated to 450 °C, it decomposes to berkelium(IV) oxide and 22 milligrams of the solution of this compound is reported to cost one million dollars.
Einsteinium compounds are compounds that contain the element einsteinium (Es). These compounds largely have einsteinium in the +3 oxidation state, or in some cases in the +2 and +4 oxidation states. Although einsteinium is relatively stable, with half-lives ranging from 20 days upwards, these compounds have not been studied in great detail.
Berkelium(III) chloride also known as berkelium trichloride, is a chemical compound with the formula BkCl3. It is a water-soluble green salt with a melting point of 603 °C. This compound forms the hexahydrate, BkCl3·6H2O.
Berkelium(III) fluoride is a binary inorganic compound of berkelium and fluorine with the chemical formula BkF
3.
Berkelium(III) oxide is a binary inorganic compound of berkelium and oxygen with the chemical formula Bk
2O
3.
Berkelium bromide is a bromide of berkelium, with the chemical formula BkBr3.
References
- ↑ Singh, Devraj; Kaushik, Shivani; Tripathi, Sudhanshu; Bhalla, Vyoma; Gupta, Alok Kumar (1 January 2014). "Temperature-Dependent Elastic and Ultrasonic Properties of Berkelium Monopnictides". Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering. 39 (1): 485–494. doi:10.1007/s13369-013-0845-1. ISSN 2191-4281. S2CID 256121775 . Retrieved 29 January 2024.
- ↑ Damien, D. A.; Haire, R. G.; Peterson, J. R. (April 1979). "Techniques of preparation and crystal chemistry of transuranic chalcogenides and pnictides". Le Journal de Physique Colloques. 40 (C4): C4–95–C4-100. doi:10.1051/jphyscol:1979430 . Retrieved 29 January 2024.
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