Gallium nitride

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Gallium nitride
GaNcrystal.jpg
GaN Wurtzite polyhedra.png
Names
IUPAC name
Gallium nitride
Other names
gallium(III) nitride
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.042.830 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
PubChem CID
UNII
  • InChI=1S/Ga.N Yes check.svgY
    Key: JMASRVWKEDWRBT-UHFFFAOYSA-N Yes check.svgY
  • InChI=1/Ga.N/rGaN/c1-2
    Key: JMASRVWKEDWRBT-MDMVGGKAAI
  • [Ga]#N
  • [Ga+3].[N-3]
Properties
GaN
Molar mass 83.730 g/mol [1]
Appearanceyellow powder
Density 6.1 g/cm3 [1]
Melting point > 1600 °C [1] [2]
Insoluble [3]
Band gap 3.4 eV (300 K, direct)
Electron mobility 1500 cm2/(V·s) (300 K) [4]
Thermal conductivity 1.3 W/(cm·K) (300 K) [5]
2.429
Structure
Wurtzite
C6v4-P63mc
a = 3.186 Å, c = 5.186 Å [6]
Tetrahedral
Thermochemistry
−110.2 kJ/mol [7]
Hazards
GHS labelling:
GHS-pictogram-exclam.svg
Warning
H317
P261, P272, P280, P302+P352, P321, P333+P313, P501
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
[8]
NFPA 704.svgHealth 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g. chloroformFlammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
2
0
0
Flash point Non-flammable
Safety data sheet (SDS) Sigma-Aldrich Co., Gallium nitride. Retrieved on 18 February 2024.
Related compounds
Other anions
Gallium phosphide
Gallium arsenide
Gallium antimonide
Other cations
Boron nitride
Aluminium nitride
Indium nitride
Related compounds
 Aluminium gallium arsenide
Indium gallium arsenide
Gallium arsenide phosphide
Aluminium gallium nitride
Indium gallium nitride
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
Yes check.svgY  verify  (what is  Yes check.svgYX mark.svgN ?)

Gallium nitride ( Ga N ) is a binary III/V direct bandgap semiconductor commonly used in blue light-emitting diodes since the 1990s. The compound is a very hard material that has a Wurtzite crystal structure. Its wide band gap of 3.4  eV affords it special properties for applications in optoelectronic, [9] [10] high-power and high-frequency devices. For example, GaN is the substrate which makes violet (405 nm) laser diodes possible, without requiring nonlinear optical frequency-doubling.

Its sensitivity to ionizing radiation is low (like other group III nitrides), making it a suitable material for solar cell arrays for satellites. Military and space applications could also benefit as devices have shown stability in high radiation environments. [11]

Because GaN transistors can operate at much higher temperatures and work at much higher voltages than gallium arsenide (GaAs) transistors, they make ideal power amplifiers at microwave frequencies. In addition, GaN offers promising characteristics for THz devices. [12] Due to high power density and voltage breakdown limits GaN is also emerging as a promising candidate for 5G cellular base station applications. Since the early 2020s, GaN power transistors have come into increasing use in power supplies in electronic equipment, converting AC mains electricity to low-voltage DC.

Physical properties

GaN crystal Crystal-GaN.jpg
GaN crystal

GaN is a very hard (Knoop hardness 14.21 GPa [13] : 4 ), mechanically stable wide-bandgap semiconductor material with high heat capacity and thermal conductivity. [14] In its pure form it resists cracking and can be deposited in thin film on sapphire or silicon carbide, despite the mismatch in their lattice constants. [14] GaN can be doped with silicon (Si) or with oxygen [15] to n-type and with magnesium (Mg) to p-type. [16] [17] However, the Si and Mg atoms change the way the GaN crystals grow, introducing tensile stresses and making them brittle. [18] Gallium nitride compounds also tend to have a high dislocation density, on the order of 108 to 1010 defects per square centimeter. [19]

The U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) provided the first measurement of the high field electron velocity in GaN in 1999. [20] Scientists at ARL experimentally obtained a peak steady-state velocity of 1.9×107 cm/s, with a transit time of 2.5 picoseconds, attained at an electric field of 225 kV/cm. With this information, the electron mobility was calculated, thus providing data for the design of GaN devices.

Developments

One of the earliest synthesis of gallium nitride was at the George Herbert Jones Laboratory in 1932. [21]

An early synthesis of gallium nitride was by Robert Juza and Harry Hahn in 1938. [22]

GaN with a high crystalline quality can be obtained by depositing a buffer layer at low temperatures. [23] Such high-quality GaN led to the discovery of p-type GaN, [16] p–n junction blue/UV-LEDs [16] and room-temperature stimulated emission [24] (essential for laser action). [25] This has led to the commercialization of high-performance blue LEDs and long-lifetime violet laser diodes, and to the development of nitride-based devices such as UV detectors and high-speed field-effect transistors.[ citation needed ]

LEDs

High-brightness GaN light-emitting diodes (LEDs) completed the range of primary colors, and made possible applications such as daylight visible full-color LED displays, white LEDs and blue laser devices. The first GaN-based high-brightness LEDs used a thin film of GaN deposited via metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy (MOVPE) on sapphire. Other substrates used are zinc oxide, with lattice constant mismatch of only 2% and silicon carbide (SiC). [26] Group III nitride semiconductors are, in general, recognized as one of the most promising semiconductor families for fabricating optical devices in the visible short-wavelength and UV region.[ citation needed ]

GaN transistors and power ICs

The very high breakdown voltages, [27] high electron mobility, and high saturation velocity of GaN has made it an ideal candidate for high-power and high-temperature microwave applications, as evidenced by its high Johnson's figure of merit. Potential markets for high-power/high-frequency devices based on GaN include microwave radio-frequency power amplifiers (e.g., those used in high-speed wireless data transmission) and high-voltage switching devices for power grids. A potential mass-market application for GaN-based RF transistors is as the microwave source for microwave ovens, replacing the magnetrons currently used. The large band gap means that the performance of GaN transistors is maintained up to higher temperatures (~400 °C [28] ) than silicon transistors (~150 °C [28] ) because it lessens the effects of thermal generation of charge carriers that are inherent to any semiconductor. The first gallium nitride metal semiconductor field-effect transistors (GaN MESFET) were experimentally demonstrated in 1993 [29] and they are being actively developed.

In 2010, the first enhancement-mode GaN transistors became generally available. [30] Only n-channel transistors were available. [30] These devices were designed to replace power MOSFETs in applications where switching speed or power conversion efficiency is critical. These transistors are built by growing a thin layer of GaN on top of a standard silicon wafer, often referred to as GaN-on-Si by manufacturers. [31] This allows the FETs to maintain costs similar to silicon power MOSFETs but with the superior electrical performance of GaN. Another seemingly viable solution for realizing enhancement-mode GaN-channel HFETs is to employ a lattice-matched quaternary AlInGaN layer of acceptably low spontaneous polarization mismatch to GaN. [32]

GaN power ICs monolithically integrate a GaN FET, GaN-based drive circuitry and circuit protection into a single surface-mount device. [33] [34] Integration means that the gate-drive loop has essentially zero impedance, which further improves efficiency by virtually eliminating FET turn-off losses. Academic studies into creating low-voltage GaN power ICs began at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) and the first devices were demonstrated in 2015. Commercial GaN power IC production began in 2018.

CMOS logic

In 2016 the first GaN CMOS logic using PMOS and NMOS transistors was reported with gate lengths of 0.5 μm (gate widths of the PMOS and NMOS transistors were 500 μm and 50 μm, respectively). [35]

Applications

LEDs and lasers

GaN-based violet laser diodes are used to read Blu-ray Discs. The mixture of GaN with In (InGaN) or Al (AlGaN) with a band gap dependent on the ratio of In or Al to GaN allows the manufacture of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with colors that can go from red to ultra-violet. [26]

Transistors and power ICs

GaN high-electron-mobility transistors (manufactured by Ferdinand-Braun-Institut) FBH GaN High electron mobility transistor.jpg
GaN high-electron-mobility transistors (manufactured by Ferdinand-Braun-Institut)

GaN transistors are suitable for high frequency, high voltage, high temperature and high efficiency applications.[ citation needed ] GaN is efficient at transferring current, and this ultimately means that less energy is lost to heat. [36]

GaN High-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT)s have been offered commercially since 2006, and have found immediate use in various wireless infrastructure applications due to their high efficiency and high voltage operation. A second generation of devices with shorter gate lengths will address higher frequency telecom and aerospace applications. [37]

GaN-based metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) and metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET) transistors also offer advantages including lower loss in high power electronics, especially in automotive and electric car applications. [38] Since 2008 these can be formed on a silicon substrate. [38] High-voltage (800 V) Schottky barrier diodes (SBDs) have also been made. [38]

The higher efficiency and high power density of integrated GaN power ICs allows them to reduce the size, weight and component count of applications including mobile and laptop chargers, consumer electronics, computing equipment and electric vehicles.

GaN-based electronics (not pure GaN) have the potential to drastically cut energy consumption, not only in consumer applications but even for power transmission utilities.

Unlike silicon transistors which switch off due to power surges, GaN transistors are typically depletion mode devices (i.e. on / resistive when the gate-source voltage is zero). Several methods have been proposed to reach normally-off (or E-mode) operation, which is necessary for use in power electronics: [39] [40]

Radars

They are also utilized in military electronics such as active electronically scanned array radars. [41]

Thales Group introduced the Ground Master 400 radar in 2010 utilizing GaN technology. In 2021 Thales put in operation more than 50,000 GaN Transmitters on radar systems. [42]

The U.S. Army funded Lockheed Martin to incorporate GaN active-device technology into the AN/TPQ-53 radar system to replace two medium-range radar systems, the AN/TPQ-36 and the AN/TPQ-37. [43] [44] The AN/TPQ-53 radar system was designed to detect, classify, track, and locate enemy indirect fire systems, as well as unmanned aerial systems. [45] The AN/TPQ-53 radar system provided enhanced performance, greater mobility, increased reliability and supportability, lower life-cycle cost, and reduced crew size compared to the AN/TPQ-36 and the AN/TPQ-37 systems. [43]

Lockheed Martin fielded other tactical operational radars with GaN technology in 2018, including TPS-77 Multi Role Radar System deployed to Latvia and Romania. [46] In 2019, Lockheed Martin's partner ELTA Systems Limited, developed a GaN-based ELM-2084 Multi Mission Radar that was able to detect and track air craft and ballistic targets, while providing fire control guidance for missile interception or air defense artillery.

On April 8, 2020, Saab flight tested its new GaN designed AESA X-band radar in a JAS-39 Gripen fighter. [47] Saab already offers products with GaN based radars, like the Giraffe radar, Erieye, GlobalEye, and Arexis EW. [48] [49] [50] [51] Saab also delivers major subsystems, assemblies and software for the AN/TPS-80 (G/ATOR) [52]

Nanoscale

GaN nanotubes and nanowires are proposed for applications in nanoscale electronics, optoelectronics and biochemical-sensing applications. [53] [54]

Spintronics potential

When doped with a suitable transition metal such as manganese, GaN is a promising spintronics material (magnetic semiconductors). [26]

Synthesis

Bulk substrates

GaN crystals can be grown from a molten Na/Ga melt held under 100 atmospheres of pressure of N2 at 750 °C. As Ga will not react with N2 below 1000 °C, the powder must be made from something more reactive, usually in one of the following ways:

2 Ga + 2 NH3 → 2 GaN + 3 H2 [55]
Ga2O3 + 2 NH3 → 2 GaN + 3 H2O [56]

Gallium nitride can also be synthesized by injecting ammonia gas into molten gallium at 900–980 °C at normal atmospheric pressure. [57]

Metal-organic vapour phase epitaxy

Blue, white and ultraviolet LEDs are grown on industrial scale by MOVPE. [58] [59] The precursors are ammonia with either trimethylgallium or triethylgallium, the carrier gas being nitrogen or hydrogen. Growth temperature ranges between 800 and 1100 °C. Introduction of trimethylaluminium and/or trimethylindium is necessary for growing quantum wells and other kinds of heterostructures.

Molecular beam epitaxy

Commercially, GaN crystals can be grown using molecular beam epitaxy or metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy. This process can be further modified to reduce dislocation densities. First, an ion beam is applied to the growth surface in order to create nanoscale roughness. Then, the surface is polished. This process takes place in a vacuum. Polishing methods typically employ a liquid electrolyte and UV irradiation to enable mechanical removal of a thin oxide layer from the wafer. More recent methods have been developed which utilize solid-state polymer electrolytes which are solvent-free and require no radiation before polishing. [60]

Safety

GaN dust is an irritant to skin, eyes and lungs. The environment, health and safety aspects of gallium nitride sources (such as trimethylgallium and ammonia) and industrial hygiene monitoring studies of MOVPE sources have been reported in a 2004 review. [61]

Bulk GaN is non-toxic and biocompatible. [62] Therefore, it may be used in the electrodes and electronics of implants in living organisms.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diode</span> Two-terminal electronic component

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction. It has low resistance in one direction and high resistance in the other.

A semiconductor is a material that has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity generally falls as its temperature rises; metals behave in the opposite way. In many cases their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by introducing impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure. When two differently doped regions exist in the same crystal, a semiconductor junction is created. The behavior of charge carriers, which include electrons, ions, and electron holes, at these junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors, and most modern electronics. Some examples of semiconductors are silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, and elements near the so-called "metalloid staircase" on the periodic table. After silicon, gallium arsenide is the second-most common semiconductor and is used in laser diodes, solar cells, microwave-frequency integrated circuits, and others. Silicon is a critical element for fabricating most electronic circuits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transistor</span> Solid-state electrically operated switch also used as an amplifier

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power. It is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. It is composed of semiconductor material, usually with at least three terminals for connection to an electronic circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually, but many more in miniature form are found embedded in integrated circuits. Because transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics, many people consider them one of the 20th century's greatest inventions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Semiconductor device</span> Electronic component that exploits the electronic properties of semiconductor materials

A semiconductor device is an electronic component that relies on the electronic properties of a semiconductor material for its function. Its conductivity lies between conductors and insulators. Semiconductor devices have replaced vacuum tubes in most applications. They conduct electric current in the solid state, rather than as free electrons across a vacuum or as free electrons and ions through an ionized gas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gallium arsenide</span> Chemical compound

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a III-V direct band gap semiconductor with a zinc blende crystal structure.

Wide-bandgap semiconductors are semiconductor materials which have a larger band gap than conventional semiconductors. Conventional semiconductors like silicon have a bandgap in the range of 0.6 – 1.5 electronvolt (eV), whereas wide-bandgap materials have bandgaps in the range above 2 eV. Generally, wide-bandgap semiconductors have electronic properties which fall in between those of conventional semiconductors and insulators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tunnel diode</span> Diode that works using quantum tunneling effect

A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode that has effectively "negative resistance" due to the quantum mechanical effect called tunneling. It was invented in August 1957 by Leo Esaki when working at Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, now known as Sony. In 1973, Esaki received the Nobel Prize in Physics for experimental demonstration of the electron tunneling effect in semiconductors. Robert Noyce independently devised the idea of a tunnel diode while working for William Shockley, but was discouraged from pursuing it. Tunnel diodes were first manufactured by Sony in 1957, followed by General Electric and other companies from about 1960, and are still made in low volume today.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High-electron-mobility transistor</span> Type of field-effect transistor

A high-electron-mobility transistor, also known as heterostructure FET (HFET) or modulation-doped FET (MODFET), is a field-effect transistor incorporating a junction between two materials with different band gaps as the channel instead of a doped region. A commonly used material combination is GaAs with AlGaAs, though there is wide variation, dependent on the application of the device. Devices incorporating more indium generally show better high-frequency performance, while in recent years, gallium nitride HEMTs have attracted attention due to their high-power performance. Like other FETs, HEMTs are used in integrated circuits as digital on-off switches. FETs can also be used as amplifiers for large amounts of current using a small voltage as a control signal. Both of these uses are made possible by the FET’s unique current–voltage characteristics. HEMT transistors are able to operate at higher frequencies than ordinary transistors, up to millimeter wave frequencies, and are used in high-frequency products such as cell phones, satellite television receivers, voltage converters, and radar equipment. They are widely used in satellite receivers, in low power amplifiers and in the defense industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aluminium nitride</span> Chemical compound

Aluminium nitride (AlN) is a solid nitride of aluminium. It has a high thermal conductivity of up to 321 W/(m·K) and is an electrical insulator. Its wurtzite phase (w-AlN) has a band gap of ~6 eV at room temperature and has a potential application in optoelectronics operating at deep ultraviolet frequencies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue laser</span> Laser which emits light with blue wavelengths

A blue laser emits electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 400 and 500 nanometers, which the human eye sees in the visible spectrum as blue or violet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indium gallium nitride</span> Chemical compound

Indium gallium nitride is a semiconductor material made of a mix of gallium nitride (GaN) and indium nitride (InN). It is a ternary group III/group V direct bandgap semiconductor. Its bandgap can be tuned by varying the amount of indium in the alloy. InxGa1−xN has a direct bandgap span from the infrared for InN to the ultraviolet of GaN. The ratio of In/Ga is usually between 0.02/0.98 and 0.3/0.7.

Aluminium gallium indium phosphide is a semiconductor material that provides a platform for the development of multi-junction photovoltaics and optoelectronic devices. It spans a direct bandgap ranging from ultraviolet to infrared photon energies.

Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) is a semiconductor material. It is any alloy of aluminium nitride and gallium nitride.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gallium(III) oxide</span> Chemical compound

Gallium(III) oxide is an inorganic compound and ultra-wide-bandgap semiconductor with the formula Ga2O3. It is actively studied for applications in power electronics, phosphors, and gas sensing. The compound has several polymorphs, of which the monoclinic β-phase is the most stable. The β-phase’s bandgap of 4.7–4.9 eV and large-area, native substrates make it a promising competitor to GaN and SiC-based power electronics applications and solar-blind UV photodetectors. The orthorhombic ĸ-Ga2O3 is the second most stable polymorph. The ĸ-phase has shown instability of subsurface doping density under thermal exposure. Ga2O3 exhibits reduced thermal conductivity and electron mobility by an order of magnitude compared to GaN and SiC, but is predicted to be significantly more cost-effective due to being the only wide-bandgap material capable of being grown from melt. β-Ga2O3 is thought to be radiation-hard, which makes it promising for military and space applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Isamu Akasaki</span> Japanese engineer (1929–2021)

Isamu Akasaki was a Japanese engineer and physicist, specializing in the field of semiconductor technology and Nobel Prize laureate, best known for inventing the bright gallium nitride (GaN) p-n junction blue LED in 1989 and subsequently the high-brightness GaN blue LED as well.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ferdinand-Braun-Institut</span>

The Ferdinand-Braun-Institut, Leibniz-Institut für Höchstfrequenztechnik (FBH) is a research institute, which is a member of the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Scientific Community. The institute is located in Berlin at the Wissenschafts- und Wirtschaftsstandort Adlershof (WISTA), its research activity is applied science in the fields of III-V electronics, photonics, integrated quantum technology and III-V technology

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Field-effect transistor</span> Type of transistor

The field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor that uses an electric field to control the flow of current in a semiconductor. It comes in two types: junction FET (JFET) and metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET). FETs have three terminals: source, gate, and drain. FETs control the flow of current by the application of a voltage to the gate, which in turn alters the conductivity between the drain and source.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hiroshi Amano</span> Japanese physicist, engineer and inventor

Hiroshi Amano is a Japanese physicist, engineer and inventor specializing in the field of semiconductor technology. For his work he was awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physics together with Isamu Akasaki and Shuji Nakamura for "the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources".

Indium aluminium nitride (InAlN) is a direct bandgap semiconductor material used in the manufacture of electronic and photonic devices. It is part of the III-V group of semiconductors, being an alloy of indium nitride and aluminium nitride, and is closely related to the more widely used gallium nitride. It is of special interest in applications requiring good stability and reliability, owing to its large direct bandgap and ability to maintain operation at temperatures of up to 1000 °C., making it of particular interest to areas such as the space industry. InAlN high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs) are attractive candidates for such applications owing to the ability of InAlN to lattice-match to gallium nitride, eliminating a reported failure route in the closely related aluminium gallium nitride HEMTs.

References

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  2. ↑ Harafuji, Kenji; Tsuchiya, Taku; Kawamura, Katsuyuki (2004). "Molecular dynamics simulation for evaluating melting point of wurtzite-type GaN crystal". Journal of Applied Physics. 96 (5): 2501. Bibcode:2004JAP....96.2501H. doi:10.1063/1.1772878.
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  4. ↑ Johan Strydom; Michael de Rooij; David Reusch; Alex Lidow (2019). GaN Transistors for efficient power conversion (3 ed.). California, USA: Wiley. p. 3. ISBN   978-1-119-59442-0.
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  15. ↑ Wetzel, C.; Suski, T.; Ager, J.W. III; Fischer, S.; Meyer, B.K.; Grzegory, I.; Porowski, S. (1996) Strongly localized donor level in oxygen doped gallium nitride, International conference on physics of semiconductors, Berlin (Germany), 21–26 July 1996.
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  19. ↑ Preuss, Paul (11 August 2000). Blue Diode Research Hastens Day of Large-Scale Solid-State Light Sources. Berkeley Lab., lbl.gov.
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  21. ↑ Ahmad, Majeed (23 May 2023). "A brief history of gallium nitride (GaN) semiconductors". EDN. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
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  23. ↑ Amano, H.; Sawaki, N.; Akasaki, I.; Toyoda, Y. (1986). "Metalorganic vapor phase epitaxial growth of a high quality GaN film using an AlN buffer layer". Applied Physics Letters. 48 (5): 353. Bibcode:1986ApPhL..48..353A. doi:10.1063/1.96549. S2CID   59066765.
  24. ↑ Amano, H.; Asahi, T.; Akasaki, I. (1990). "Stimulated Emission Near Ultraviolet at Room Temperature from a GaN Film Grown on Sapphire by MOVPE Using an AlN Buffer Layer". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. 29 (2): L205. Bibcode:1990JaJAP..29L.205A. doi:10.1143/JJAP.29.L205. S2CID   120489784.
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