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Cornish literature refers to written works in the Cornish language. The earliest surviving texts are in verse and date from the 14th century. There are virtually none from the 18th and 19th centuries but writing in revived forms of Cornish began in the early 20th century.
The Prophecy of Ambrosius Merlin concerning the Seven Kings is a 12th-century poem written ca. 1144 by John of Cornwall in Latin, with some of the marginal notes in Cornish. John stated that the work was a translation based on an earlier document written in the Cornish language. The manuscript of the poem, on a codex currently held at the Vatican Library, is unique. It attracted little attention from the scholarly world until 1876, when Whitley Stokes undertook a brief analysis of the Cornish and Welsh vocabulary found in John's marginal commentary. [1] These notes are among the earliest known writings in the Cornish language. [2] In 2001 this important work was translated back into Cornish by Julyan Holmes. [3]
Pascon agan Arluth ('The Passion of our Lord'), a poem of 259 eight-line verses probably composed around 1375, is one of the earliest surviving works of Cornish literature. The most important work of literature surviving from the Middle Cornish period is the Cornish Ordinalia , a 9000-line religious verse drama which had probably reached its present form by 1400. The Ordinalia consists of three mystery plays, Origo Mundi, Passio Christi and Resurrexio Domini, meant to be performed on successive days. Such plays were performed in a Plain an Gwarry (Playing place). In 1981, the Breton library Preder edited it in modern scripture under the name of Passyon agan arluth.
The longest single surviving work of Cornish literature is Beunans Meriasek (The Life of Meriasek), a two-day verse drama dated 1504, but probably copied from an earlier manuscript.
Other notable pieces of Cornish literature include the Creation of the World (with Noah's Flood) which is a miracle play similar to Origo Mundi but in a much later manuscript (1611); the Charter Fragment, a short poem about marriage, believed to be the earliest connected text in the language; and Beunans Ke , another saint's play only discovered in 2000, notable for including some Arthurian material.
The earliest surviving examples of Cornish prose are the Tregear Homilies, a series of 12 Catholic sermons written in English and translated by John Tregear in around 1560, [4] [5] to which a thirteenth homily The Sacrament of the Alter was added by another hand. [6] Twelve of the thirteen homilies in Edmund Bonner's Homelies to be read within his diocese of London of all Parsons, vycars and curates (1555; ten of these were by John Harpsfield, two by Henry Pendleton [note 1] and one by Bonner himself) [8] were translated into Cornish by John Tregear, and are now the largest single work of traditional Cornish prose. [6] The thirteenth homily in the Cornish translation is taken from an unidentified source. [8]
Tregear was "not a skilled translator", [9] and often used English loanwords or loan translations. [6] According to Alan Kent, this could have been when Tregear was unable to remember the translation due to the significant decline in the knowledge and understanding of Cornish at the time, perhaps intending to return to correct them later. [10] The Homilies were discovered in April 1949 by John Mackechnie in the papers of the Puleston family in the collection of the British Museum. [4]
Nicholas Boson (1624−1708) wrote three significant texts in Cornish, Nebbaz gerriau dro tho Carnoack (A Few Words about Cornish) between 1675 and 1708; Jowan Chy-an-Horth, py, An try foynt a skyans (John of Chyannor, or, The three points of wisdom), published by Edward Lhuyd in 1707, though written earlier; and The Dutchess of Cornwall's Progress, partly in English, now known only in fragments. The first two are the only known surviving Cornish prose texts from the 17th century. Boson's work is collected, along with that of his son John Boson and his cousin Thomas Boson (1635–1719) in Oliver Padel's The Cornish writings of the Boson family (1975). [11]
Fragments of Cornish writing continued to appear as the language was becoming extinct during the 18th century. However, in the late 19th century a few works by non-native speakers were produced; these efforts were followed by a more substantial revival in the 20th and 21st centuries. Of the early pieces the most significant is the so-called "Cranken Rhyme" produced by John Davey of Boswednack, one of the last people with some traditional knowledge of the language. [12] [13] The poem, published by John Hobson Matthews in 1892, may be the last piece of traditional Cornish literature. In 1865 German language enthusiast Georg Sauerwein composed two poems in the language. Later Hobson Matthews wrote several poems, such as the patriotic "Can Wlascar Agan Mamvro" ("Patriotic Song of our Motherland"), and Robert Morton Nance, a disciple of Henry Jenner, created a body of verse, for example "Nyns yu Marow Myghtern Arthur" ("King Arthur is not Dead"), which concerns the popular Cornish subject of King Arthur's legendary immortality. Both of these writers' works are characterised by a specifically revivalist mode. [13]
These efforts were followed in the early 20th century by further works of revivalist literature by Cornish language enthusiasts. Works of this period were generally printed in limited publications by authors far removed from Cornwall and each other; their importance to the later revival movement was not fully recognized for decades. [13] The literary output of the Cornish revival has largely been poetry. Notable writers of the time include Edward Chirgwin and A. S. D. Smith, whose epic poem Trystan hag Isolt, a reworking of the Tristan and Iseult legend, is one of the most celebrated pieces of Cornish revival writing. [13] Another significant early text is Peggy Pollard's 1941 play Beunans Alysaryn, modelled on the 16th-century saints' plays. [13]
This is an example of Cornish written by the hand of a native speaker . The text is also interesting from a sociolinguistic point of view in that Bodinar speaks about the contemporary state of the Cornish language in 1776.
Below it is written in Bodinar's original spelling, then in modern Cornish spelling (SWF), then a translation in English:
| Bluth vee ew try egance a pemp. Thera vee dean bodgack an puscas. Me rig deskey Cornoack termen me vee mawe. Me vee de more gen seara vee a pemp dean mouy en cock. Me rig scantlower clowes eden ger Sowsnack cowes en cock rag sythen warebar. Na riga vee biscath gwellas lever Cornoack. Me deskey Cornoack moas da more gen tees coath. Nag es mouy vel pager po pemp en dreav nye ell clapia Cornoack leben, poble coath pager egance blouth. Cornoack ewe oll naceaves gen poble younk. |
The later 20th century saw increasing interest in the Cornish language and its literature, and an expansion into other media. The dearth of Cornish readers has made the production of novels difficult, though several have now been published. The earliest was Melville Bennetto's An Gurun Wosek a Geltya (The Bloody Crown of the Celtic Countries) in 1984; subsequently Michael Palmer published five novels including Jory (1989) and Dyvroans (1998). All of these were published in Unified Cornish. [14] [13] Tim Saunders and Nicholas Williams are among the contemporary poets writing in Cornish. Additionally, writers such as Nick Darke and Alan M. Kent have incorporated a Cornish background into English writing. [13] Others have translated foreign works into Cornish. Jowann Richards (1926-2005) produced a Cornish translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam ( ISBN 0-907064-29-9) in 1990. Beginning in the 2000s, translators set about translating the Bible in order to redress the handicap unique to Cornish, in that of all the modern Celtic languages, only Cornish had no Bible translation. The first complete edition of the New Testament in Cornish, Nicholas Williams's translation Testament Noweth agan Arluth ha Savyour Jesu Cryst, was published at Easter 2002 by Spyrys a Gernow ( ISBN 0-9535975-4-7); it uses Unified Cornish Revised orthography. The translation was made from the Greek text, and incorporated John Tregear's existing translations with slight revisions. In August 2004, Kesva an Taves Kernewek published its edition of the New Testament in Cornish ( ISBN 1-902917-33-2), translated by Keith Syed and Ray Edwards; it uses Kernewek Kemmyn orthography. It was launched in a ceremony in Truro Cathedral attended by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Translations of the entire Old and New Testaments were published in 2011 in Kernowek Standard, translated by Nicholas Williams, and in 2020 in Kernewek Kemmyn translated by the Cornish Bible Project.
2009 and subsequent years saw the publication of a number of novels in Cornish. Nicholas Williams's translation of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland appeared as Alys in Pow an Anethow ( ISBN 978-1-904808-19-0), as did his translation of Craig Weatherhill's novel The Lyonesse Stone, titled in Cornish Jowal Lethesow ( ISBN 978-1-904808-30-5). Kaspar Hocking's abridgement of Jules Verne's Around the World in Eighty Days was published as Adro dhe'n Bÿs in Peswar Ugans Dëdh ( ISBN 978-1-904808-21-3), and Eddie Foirbeis Climo's Kensa Lyver Redya ( ISBN 978-1-904808-24-4) 'First Reading Book', a translation of Harriette Taylor Treadwell and Margaret Free's Primer, was published as well. The following years saw over a dozen classic novels translated by Nicholas Williams in his Standard Cornish orthography, including Treasure Island (Enys Tresour) in 2010, The Hound of the Baskervilles (Ky Teylu Baskerville) in 2012, The War of the Worlds (Gwerryans an Planettys) in 2013 and The Hobbit (An Hobys) in 2014. [15] Others appeared in Kernewek Kemmyn, such as Polin Prys' Kas ha Dial (Hate and Revenge) and the Broder Wella (Brother William) collection of short stories by Jowann Richards. The advent of the Standard Written Form in 2008 saw the translation of Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince (An Pennsevik Byhan) in 2010, and several novels by Rod Lyon, Dhe Emlow an Galaksi (To the edges of the galaxy) in 2015, Tenkys (Fate) in 2016 and Dicky Holla in 2017. [16]
A list of many titles including translations and original stories for adults and children can be found on the Cornish language page.
Cornish is a Southwestern Brittonic language of the Celtic language family. Along with Welsh and Breton, Cornish is descended from the Common Brittonic language spoken throughout much of Great Britain before the English language came to dominate. For centuries, until it was pushed westwards by English, it was the main language of Cornwall, maintaining close links with its sister language Breton, with which it was mutually intelligible, perhaps even as long as Cornish continued to be spoken as a vernacular. Cornish continued to function as a common community language in parts of Cornwall until the mid 18th century, and there is some evidence for traditional speakers of the language persisting into the 19th century.
Nicholas Jonathan Anselm Williams, sometimes credited as N. J. A. Williams, is a leading expert and poet in the Cornish language.
Kenneth John George is a British oceanographer, poet, and linguist. He is noted as being the originator of Kernewek Kemmyn, an orthography for the revived Cornish language which he claims is more faithful to Middle Cornish phonology than its precursor,.
Kesva an Taves Kernewek is an organisation that promotes the Cornish language. It was founded in 1967 by Gorseth Kernow and the Federation of Old Cornwall Societies. It is represented on the official language body, the Cornish Language Partnership.
Bewnans Ke is a Middle Cornish play on the life of Saint Kea or Ke, who was venerated in Cornwall, Brittany and elsewhere. It was written around 1500 but survives only in an incomplete manuscript from the second half of the 16th century. The play was entirely unknown until 2000, when it was identified among the private collection of J. E. Caerwyn Williams, which had been donated to the National Library of Wales after his death the previous year. The discovery proved one of the most significant finds in the study of Cornish literature and language.
Kernewek Kemmyn is a variety of the revived Cornish language.
Modern Cornish (Kernuack Nowedga) is a variety of the revived Cornish language. It is sometimes called Revived Late Cornish (RLC) or Kernuack Dewethas, to distinguish it from other forms of contemporary revived Cornish.
Unified Cornish (UC) is a variety of the Cornish language of the Cornish revival. Developed gradually by Robert Morton Nance during and before the 1930s, it derived its name from its standardisation of the variant spellings of traditional Cornish manuscripts. Nance's recommended spelling and grammar, based on Middle Cornish, soon supplanted Henry Jenner's system, which had been based largely on Late Cornish. Most of the older generation of Cornish users alive today would have started under this system. It was also the form originally used by Gorsedh Kernow, although they now use the new Standard Written Form.
Julyan Holmes is a Cornish scholar and poet. Born in 1948, Holmes has worked on such topics as Cornish placenames, the Prophecy of Merlin of John of Cornwall, and the writings of the Penwith School.
Haldreyn is the bardic name of William Morris. He is a Cornish poet, linguist, and painter. Haldreyn was an original member of Kesva an Taves Kernewek and is a bard of the Gorseth Kernow, appointed in 1966.
The Cornish Language Partnership was a representative body that was set up in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom, in 2005 to promote and develop the use of the Cornish language. and was dissolved in 2015. It was a public and voluntary sector partnership and consisted of representatives from various Cornish language societies, Cornish cultural and economic organisations and local government in Cornwall. The organisation was part-funded by the European Union's Objective One programme, the United Kingdom government's Department for Communities and Local Government and Cornwall Council.
Specimens of Middle Cornish texts are given here in Cornish and English. Both texts have been dated within the period 1370–1410 and the Charter Fragment is given in two Cornish orthographies.
Christianity in Cornwall began in the 4th or 5th century AD when Western Christianity was introduced as in the rest of Roman Britain. Over time it became the official religion, superseding previous Celtic and Roman practices. Early Christianity in Cornwall was spread largely by the saints, including Saint Piran, the patron of the county. Cornwall, like other parts of Britain, is sometimes associated with the distinct collection of practices known as Celtic Christianity but was always in communion with the wider Catholic Church. The Cornish saints are commemorated in legends, churches and placenames.
Prophecy of Merlin, sometimes called The Prophecy of Ambrosius Merlin concerning the Seven Kings, is a 12th-century poem written in Latin hexameters by John of Cornwall, which he claimed was based or revived from a lost manuscript in the Cornish language. The original manuscript is unique and currently held in a codex at the Vatican Library.
Translations of parts of the Bible into Cornish have existed since the 17th century. The early works involved the translation of individual passages, chapters or books of the Bible. The first full translation of the Bible into the Cornish language was published in 2011. The New Testament and Psalms in another translation went online in 2014.
The Cornish language revival is an ongoing process to revive the use of the Cornish language of Cornwall, England. The Cornish language's disappearance began to hasten during the 13th century, but its decline began with the spread of Old English in the 5th and 6th centuries. The last reported person to have full knowledge of a traditional form of Cornish, John Davey, died in 1891. The revival movement started in the late 19th century as a result of antiquarian and academic interest in the language, which was already extinct, and also as a result of the Celtic revival movement. In 2009, UNESCO changed its classification of Cornish from "extinct" to "critically endangered", seen as a milestone for the revival of the language.
In addition to English, literature has been written in a wide variety of other languages in Britain, that is the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. This includes literature in Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, Latin, Cornish, Anglo-Norman, Guernésiais, Jèrriais, Manx, and Irish. Literature in Anglo-Saxon is treated as English literature and literature in Scots as Scottish literature.
The anonymous poem Pascon agan Arluth is the oldest complete literary work in the Cornish language, dating from the 14th century. The modern title means "The Passion of Our Lord", but the poem has also been published as Mount Calvary.
Presented below is an alphabetical index of articles related to Cornwall:
