List of antibiotics

Last updated

The following is a list of antibiotics. The highest division between antibiotics is bactericidal and bacteriostatic. Bactericidals kill bacteria directly, whereas bacteriostatics prevent them from dividing. However, these classifications are based on laboratory behavior. The development of antibiotics has had a profound effect on the health of people for many years. Also, both people and animals have used antibiotics to treat infections and diseases. In practice, both treat bacterial infections. [1]

Contents

By coverage

The following are lists of antibiotics for specific microbial coverage (not an exhaustive list):

MRSA

Antibiotics that cover methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA):

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Antibiotics that cover Pseudomonas aeruginosa :

Certain cephalosporins, cephalosporin-beta-lactamase-inhibitor combinations, and new siderophore cephalosporins.

Certain penicillins:

Certain carbapenems and carbapenem-beta-lactamase-inhibitors combinations:

Others:

VRE

Antibiotics that usually have activity against vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE):

Antibiotics with less reliable but occasional (depending on isolate and subspecies) activity:

By class

See also pathogenic bacteria for a list of antibiotics sorted by target bacteria.

Antibiotics coverage diagram.jpg

Antibiotics by class
Generic nameBrand namesCommon uses [4] Possible side effects [4] Mechanism of action
Aminoglycosides
Amikacin Amikin Infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella particularly Pseudomonas aeruginosa . Effective against aerobic bacteria (not obligate/facultative anaerobes) and tularemia. All aminoglycosides are ineffective when taken orally as the stomach will digest the drug before it goes into the bloodstream. However aminoglycosides are effective in Intravenous, intramuscular and topical forms.Binding to the bacterial 30S ribosomal subunit (some work by binding to the 50S subunit), inhibiting the translocation of the peptidyl-tRNA from the A-site to the P-site and also causing misreading of mRNA, leaving the bacterium unable to synthesize proteins vital to its growth.
Gentamicin Garamycin
Kanamycin Kantrex
Neomycin Neo-Fradin [5]
Netilmicin Netromycin
Tobramycin Nebcin
Paromomycin Humatin
Streptomycin Tuberculosis
Spectinomycin(Bs)Trobicin Gonorrhea
Ansamycins
Geldanamycin Experimental, as antitumor antibiotics Block DNA transcription, either via inhibiting DNA-dependent RNA polymerase by binding to the β-subunit
Herbimycin
Rifaximin Xifaxan Traveler's diarrhea caused by E. coli
Carbacephem
Loracarbef Lorabid DiscontinuedPrevents bacterial cell division by inhibiting cell wall synthesis.
Carbapenems
Ertapenem Invanz Bactericidal for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms and therefore useful for empiric broad-spectrum antibacterial coverage. (Notes: MRSA resistance to this class. All are active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa except ertapenem.)
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea
  • Seizures
  • Headache
  • Rash and allergic reactions
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis
Doripenem Doribax
Imipenem/Cilastatin Primaxin
Meropenem Merrem
Cephalosporins (First generation)
Cefadroxil Duricef Good coverage against Gram-positive infections.
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)
  • Allergic reactions
Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Cefazolin Ancef, Kefzol
Cephradine
Cephapirin
Cephalothin
Cefalexin Keflex
Cephalosporins (Second generation)
Cefaclor Distaclor, Ceclor, Raniclor Less Gram-positive cover, improved Gram-negative cover.
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently) - if contains methylthiotetrazole side group
  • Hypoprothrombinemia - if contains methylthiotetrazole side group
  • Allergic reactions
Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Cefoxitin
Cefotetan Cefotan
Cefamandole
Cefmetazole
Cefonicid
Loracarbef
Cefprozil Cefzil
Cefuroxime Ceftin, Zinacef (UK)
Cephalosporins (Third generation)
Cefixime (antagonistic with Chloramphenicol) [6] Cefspan (Fujisawa), Suprax Improved coverage of Gram-negative organisms, except Pseudomonas . Reduced Gram-positive cover. But still not cover Mycoplasma and Chlamydia
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)
  • Allergic reactions
Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Cefdinir Omnicef, Cefdiel
Cefditoren Spectracef, Meiact
Cefoperazone [Unlike most third-generation agents, cefoperazone is active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa ], combination Cefoperazone with Sulbactam makes more effective antibiotic, because Sulbactam avoid degeneration of Cefoperazone Cefobid (discontinued)
Cefotaxime Claforan
Cefpodoxime Vantin, Banadoz
Ceftazidime (Unlike most third-generation agents, ceftazidime is active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa , but less active against Staphylococci and Streptococci compare to other 3rd generation of cephalosporins) Fortaz, Ceptaz
Ceftibuten Cedax
Ceftizoxime
Moxalactam
Ceftriaxone (IV and IM, not orally, effective also for syphilis and uncomplicated gonorrhea) Rocephin
Cephalosporins (Fourth generation)
Cefepime Maxipime

Covers pseudomonal infections.

  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)
  • Allergic reactions
Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Cephalosporins (Fifth generation)
Ceftaroline fosamil Teflaro Used to treat MRSA
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Allergic reaction
Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Ceftobiprole Zeftera Used to treat MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and enterococci
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)
  • Allergic reactions
Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Glycopeptides
Teicoplanin Targocid (UK)Active against aerobic and anaerobic Gram-positive bacteria including MRSA; Vancomycin is used orally for the treatment of C. difficile colitis Inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis.
Vancomycin Vancocin
Telavancin Vibativ
Dalbavancin Dalvance
Oritavancin Orbactiv
Lincosamides(Bs)
Clindamycin Cleocin Serious staph-, pneumo-, and streptococcal infections in penicillin-allergic patients, also anaerobic infections; clindamycin topically for acne Possible C. difficile -related pseudomembranous enterocolitis Binds to 50S subunit of bacterial ribosomal RNA thereby inhibiting protein synthesis.
Lincomycin Lincocin
Lipopeptide
Daptomycin Cubicin Gram-positive organisms, but is inhibited by pulmonary surfactant so less effective against pneumoniasBinds to the membrane and cause rapid depolarization, resulting in a loss of membrane potential leading to inhibition of protein, DNA and RNA synthesis.
Macrolides(Bs)
Azithromycin Zithromax, Sumamed, Xithrone Streptococcal infections, syphilis, upper respiratory tract infections, lower respiratory tract infections, mycoplasmal infections, Lyme disease
  • Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea (especially at higher doses)
  • Prolonged cardiac QT interval (especially erythromycin)
  • Hearing loss (especially at higher doses)
  • Jaundice
Inhibition of bacterial protein biosynthesis by binding reversibly to the subunit 50S of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting translocation of peptidyl tRNA.
Clarithromycin Biaxin
Erythromycin Erythocin, Erythroped
Roxithromycin
Telithromycin Ketek Pneumonia Visual disturbance, liver toxicity. [7]
Spiramycin Rovamycine Mouth infections
Fidaxomicin Dificid Treatment of Clostridioides (formerly Clostridium ) difficile infection. [8] May be more narrow-spectrum than vancomycin, resulting in less bowel microbiota alteration. [9] Nausea (11%), vomiting, and abdominal pain. [10] Bactericidal in susceptible organisms such as C. difficile by inhibiting RNA polymerase, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis. [10]
Monobactams
Aztreonam Azactam Gram-negative bacteriaSame mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Nitrofurans
Furazolidone FuroxoneBacterial or protozoal diarrhea or enteritis
Nitrofurantoin(Bs) Macrodantin, Macrobid Urinary tract infections
Oxazolidinones(Bs)
Linezolid Zyvox VRSA Protein synthesis inhibitor; prevents the initiation step
Posizolid Phase II clinical trials
Radezolid Phase II clinical trials
Tedizolid Sivextro
Penicillins
Amoxicillin Novamox, Amoxil Wide range of infections; penicillin used for streptococcal infections, syphilis, and Lyme disease Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Ampicillin Principen (discontinued)
Azlocillin
Dicloxacillin Dynapen (discontinued)
Flucloxacillin Floxapen (Sold to European generics Actavis Group)
Mezlocillin Mezlin (discontinued)
Methicillin Staphcillin (discontinued)
Nafcillin Unipen (discontinued)
Oxacillin Prostaphlin (discontinued)
Penicillin G Pentids (discontinued)
Penicillin V Veetids (Pen-Vee-K) (discontinued)
Piperacillin Pipracil (discontinued)
Penicillin G Pfizerpen
Temocillin Negaban (UK) (discontinued)
Ticarcillin Ticar (discontinued)
Penicillin combinations
Amoxicillin/clavulanate AugmentinBoth Amoxicillin/clavulanate and Ampicillin/sulbactam are effective against non-recurrent acute otitis media. [11] Amoxicillin/clavulanate is one of the few oral antibiotics effective against skin and soft tissue infections. Can be given to children less than 40 kilograms in weight; for children heavier, the dosage is same as adults, twice daily. [12] The second component reduces the effectiveness of some forms of bacterial resistance to the first component
Ampicillin/sulbactam Unasyn
Piperacillin/tazobactam Zosyn
Ticarcillin/clavulanate Timentin
Polypeptides
Bacitracin Eye, ear or bladder infections; usually applied directly to the eye or inhaled into the lungs; rarely given by injection, although the use of intravenous colistin is experiencing a resurgence due to the emergence of multi drug resistant organisms.Kidney and nerve damage (when given by injection)Inhibits isoprenyl pyrophosphate, a molecule that carries the building blocks of the peptidoglycan bacterial cell wall outside of the inner membrane [13]
Colistin Coly-Mycin-SInteract with the Gram-negative bacterial outer membrane and cytoplasmic membrane, displacing bacterial counterions, which destabilizes the outer membrane. Act like a detergent against the cytoplasmic membrane, which alters its permeability. Polymyxin B and E are bactericidal even in an isosmotic solution.
Polymyxin B
Quinolones/Fluoroquinolones
Ciprofloxacin Cipro, Ciproxin, CiprobayUrinary tract infections, bacterial prostatitis, community-acquired pneumonia, bacterial diarrhea, mycoplasmal infections, gonorrhea Nausea (rare), irreversible damage to central nervous system (uncommon), tendinosis (rare)Inhibits the bacterial DNA gyrase or the topoisomerase IV enzyme, thereby inhibiting DNA replication and transcription.
Enoxacin Penetrex
Gatifloxacin Tequin
Gemifloxacin Factive [14]
Levofloxacin Levaquin
Lomefloxacin Maxaquin
Moxifloxacin Avelox
Nadifloxacin
Nalidixic acid NegGram
Norfloxacin Noroxin
Ofloxacin Floxin (discontinued), Ocuflox
Trovafloxacin Trovan Withdrawn
Grepafloxacin Raxar Withdrawn
Sparfloxacin Zagam Withdrawn
Temafloxacin Omniflox Withdrawn
Sulfonamides(Bs)
Mafenide Sulfamylon Urinary tract infections (except sulfacetamide, used for eye infections, and mafenide and silver sulfadiazine, used topically for burns) Folate synthesis inhibition. They are competitive inhibitors of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase, DHPS. DHPS catalyses the conversion of PABA (para-aminobenzoate) to dihydropteroate, a key step in folate synthesis. Folate is necessary for the cell to synthesize nucleic acids (nucleic acids are essential building blocks of DNA and RNA), and in its absence cells cannot divide.
Sulfacetamide Sulamyd, Bleph-10
Sulfadiazine Micro-Sulfon
Silver sulfadiazine Silvadene
Sulfadimethoxine Di-Methox, Albon
Sulfamethizole Thiosulfil Forte
Sulfamethoxazole Gantanol
Sulfanilimide (archaic)
Sulfasalazine Azulfidine
Sulfisoxazole Gantrisin
Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole (Co-trimoxazole) (TMP-SMX) Bactrim, Septra
Sulfonamidochrysoidine (archaic) Prontosil
Tetracyclines(Bs)
Demeclocycline Declomycin Syphilis, chlamydial infections, Lyme disease, mycoplasmal infections, acne rickettsial infections, malaria [note 1]
  • Gastrointestinal upset
  • Sensitivity to sunlight
  • Potential toxicity to mother and fetus during pregnancy
  • Enamel hypoplasia (staining of teeth; potentially permanent)
  • Transient depression of bone growth
Inhibits the binding of aminoacyl-tRNA to the mRNA-ribosome complex. They do so mainly by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit in the mRNA translation complex. But Tetracycline cannot be taken together with all dairy products, aluminium, iron and zinc minerals.
Doxycycline Vibramycin
Metacycline
Minocycline Minocin
Oxytetracycline Terramycin
Tetracycline Sumycin, Achromycin V, Steclin
Pleuromutilin antibiotics
Lefamulin Xenleta
Retapamulin Altabax
Valnemulin Econor
Tiamulin Dynamutilin
Drugs against mycobacteria
Clofazimine Lamprene Antileprotic
Dapsone Avlosulfon Antileprotic
Capreomycin Capastat Antituberculosis
Cycloserine Seromycin Antituberculosis, urinary tract infections
Ethambutol(Bs)Myambutol Antituberculosis
Ethionamide Trecator Antituberculosis Inhibits peptide synthesis
Isoniazid I.N.H. Antituberculosis
Pyrazinamide Aldinamide Antituberculosis
Rifampicin (Rifampin in US)Rifadin, Rimactanemostly Gram-positive and mycobacteria Reddish-orange sweat, tears, and urineBinds to the β subunit of RNA polymerase to inhibit transcription
Rifabutin Mycobutin Mycobacterium avium complex Rash, discolored urine, GI symptoms
Rifapentine Priftin Antituberculosis
Streptomycin Antituberculosis Neurotoxicity, ototoxicity As other aminoglycosides
Others
Arsphenamine Salvarsan Spirochaetal infections (obsolete)
Chloramphenicol(Bs) Chloromycetin Meningitis, MRSA, topical use, or for low-cost internal treatment. Historic: typhus, cholera. Gram-negative, Gram-positive, anaerobes Rarely: aplastic anemia.Inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S subunit of the ribosome
Fosfomycin Monurol, MonurilAcute cystitis in womenThis antibiotic is not recommended for children and 75 and up of ageInactivates enolpyruvyl transferase, thereby blocking cell wall synthesis
Fusidic acid Fucidin
Metronidazole Flagyl Infections caused by anaerobic bacteria; also amoebiasis, trichomoniasis, giardiasis Discolored urine, headache, metallic taste, nausea; alcohol is contraindicatedProduces toxic free radicals that disrupt DNA and proteins. This non-specific mechanism is responsible for its activity against a variety of bacteria, amoebae, and protozoa.
Mupirocin Bactroban Ointment for impetigo, cream for infected cutsInhibits isoleucine t-RNA synthetase (IleRS) causing inhibition of protein synthesis
Platensimycin
Quinupristin/Dalfopristin Synercid
Thiamphenicol Gram-negative, Gram-positive, anaerobes. Widely used in veterinary medicine.Rash. Lacks known anemic side-effects.A chloramphenicol analog. May inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S subunit of the ribosome
Tigecycline(Bs)TigacylSlowly Intravenous. Indicated for complicated skin/skin structure infections, soft tissue infections and complicated intra-abdominal infections. Effective for gram-positive, gram-negative, anaerobic, and against multi-antibiotic resistant bacteria (such as Staphylococcus aureus [MRSA] and Acinetobacter baumannii ), but not effective for Pseudomonas spp. and Proteus spp.Teeth discoloration and same side effects as tetracycline. Not to be given to children and pregnant or lactating women.Similar structure with tetracycline, but five times stronger, big volume distribution and long half-time in the body
Tinidazole Tindamax FasigynProtozoal infectionsUpset stomach, bitter taste, and itchiness
Trimethoprim(Bs)Proloprim, TrimpexUrinary tract infections
Generic NameBrand NamesCommon Uses [4] Possible Side Effects [4] Mechanism of action

Note: (Bs): Bacteriostatic

Antibiotic candidates

These are antibiotic candidates, and known antibiotics that are not yet mass-produced.

Antibiotic candidates
Generic nameOriginSusceptible phylaStage of developmentMechanism of action
Unclassified
Teixobactin Eleftheria terrae Gram-positive, including antibiotic resistant S. aureus and M. tuberculosis No human trials scheduledBinds fatty acid precursors to cell wall
Malacidins Uncultured Bacterium Gram-positive, including antibiotic resistant S. aureus No human trials scheduledBinds fatty acid precursors to cell wall
Halicin Anti-diabetic drug Clostridiodes difficile , Acinetobacter baumannii , and Mycobacterium tuberculosis No human trials scheduledDisrupts electrochemical gradient

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Note: Malaria is caused by a protist and not a bacterium.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ampicillin</span> Antibiotic

Ampicillin is an antibiotic belonging to the aminopenicillin class of the penicillin family. The drug is used to prevent and treat several bacterial infections, such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, salmonellosis, and endocarditis. It may also be used to prevent group B streptococcal infection in newborns. It is used by mouth, by injection into a muscle, or intravenously.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beta-lactamase</span> Class of enzymes

Beta-lactamases (β-lactamases) are enzymes produced by bacteria that provide multi-resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics such as penicillins, cephalosporins, cephamycins, monobactams and carbapenems (ertapenem), although carbapenems are relatively resistant to beta-lactamase. Beta-lactamase provides antibiotic resistance by breaking the antibiotics' structure. These antibiotics all have a common element in their molecular structure: a four-atom ring known as a beta-lactam (β-lactam) ring. Through hydrolysis, the enzyme lactamase breaks the β-lactam ring open, deactivating the molecule's antibacterial properties.

β-Lactam antibiotic Class of broad-spectrum antibiotics

β-Lactam antibiotics are antibiotics that contain a β-lactam ring in their chemical structure. This includes penicillin derivatives (penams), cephalosporins and cephamycins (cephems), monobactams, carbapenems and carbacephems. Most β-lactam antibiotics work by inhibiting cell wall biosynthesis in the bacterial organism and are the most widely used group of antibiotics. Until 2003, when measured by sales, more than half of all commercially available antibiotics in use were β-lactam compounds. The first β-lactam antibiotic discovered, penicillin, was isolated from a strain of Penicillium rubens.

This is the timeline of modern antimicrobial (anti-infective) therapy. The years show when a given drug was released onto the pharmaceutical market. This is not a timeline of the development of the antibiotics themselves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ertapenem</span> Antibiotic medication

Ertapenem, sold under the brand name Invanz, is a carbapenem antibiotic medication used for the treatment of infections of the abdomen, the lungs, the upper part of the female reproductive system, and the diabetic foot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cephalosporin</span> Class of pharmaceutical drugs

The cephalosporins are a class of β-lactam antibiotics originally derived from the fungus Acremonium, which was previously known as Cephalosporium.

ATC code J01Antibacterials for systemic use is a therapeutic subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System, a system of alphanumeric codes developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) for the classification of drugs and other medical products. Subgroup J01 is part of the anatomical group J Antiinfectives for systemic use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid</span> Combination antibiotic medication

Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, also known as co-amoxiclav or amox-clav, sold under the brand name Augmentin, among others, is an antibiotic medication used for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. It is a combination consisting of amoxicillin, a β-lactam antibiotic, and potassium clavulanate, a β-lactamase inhibitor. It is specifically used for otitis media, streptococcal pharyngitis, pneumonia, cellulitis, urinary tract infections, and animal bites. It is taken by mouth or by injection into a vein.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piperacillin</span> Antibiotic medication

Piperacillin is a broad-spectrum β-lactam antibiotic of the ureidopenicillin class. The chemical structure of piperacillin and other ureidopenicillins incorporates a polar side chain that enhances penetration into Gram-negative bacteria and reduces susceptibility to cleavage by Gram-negative beta lactamase enzymes. These properties confer activity against the important hospital pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Thus piperacillin is sometimes referred to as an "anti-pseudomonal penicillin".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbapenem</span> Class of highly effective antibiotic agents

Carbapenems are a class of very effective antibiotic agents most commonly used for treatment of severe bacterial infections. This class of antibiotics is usually reserved for known or suspected multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial infections. Similar to penicillins and cephalosporins, carbapenems are members of the beta-lactam antibiotics drug class, which kill bacteria by binding to penicillin-binding proteins, thus inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis. However, these agents individually exhibit a broader spectrum of activity compared to most cephalosporins and penicillins. Furthermore, carbapenems are typically unaffected by emerging antibiotic resistance, even to other beta-lactams.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Imipenem/cilastatin</span> Combination antibiotic medication

Imipenem/cilastatin, sold under the brand name Primaxin among others, is an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. It is made from a combination of imipenem and cilastatin. Specifically it is used for pneumonia, sepsis, endocarditis, joint infections, intra-abdominal infections, and urinary tract infections. It is given by injection into a vein or muscle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cilastatin</span> Chemical compound

Cilastatin inhibits the human enzyme dehydropeptidase.

Ampicillin/sulbactam is a fixed-dose combination medication of the common penicillin-derived antibiotic ampicillin and sulbactam, an inhibitor of bacterial beta-lactamase. Two different forms of the drug exist. The first, developed in 1987 and marketed in the United States under the brand name Unasyn, generic only outside the United States, is an intravenous antibiotic. The second, an oral form called sultamicillin, is marketed under the brand name Ampictam outside the United States, and generic only in the United States. Ampicillin/sulbactam is used to treat infections caused by bacteria resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics. Sulbactam blocks the enzyme which breaks down ampicillin and thereby allows ampicillin to attack and kill the bacteria.

Capnocytophaga is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria. Normally found in the oropharyngeal tract of mammals and are involved in the pathogenesis of some animal bite wounds and periodontal diseases.

β-Lactamase inhibitor Drugs that inhibit β-Lactamase enzymes

Beta-lactamases are a family of enzymes involved in bacterial resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. In bacterial resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics, the bacteria have beta-lactamase which degrade the beta-lactam rings, rendering the antibiotic ineffective. However, with beta-lactamase inhibitors, these enzymes on the bacteria are inhibited, thus allowing the antibiotic to take effect. Strategies for combating this form of resistance have included the development of new beta-lactam antibiotics that are more resistant to cleavage and the development of the class of enzyme inhibitors called beta-lactamase inhibitors. Although β-lactamase inhibitors have little antibiotic activity of their own, they prevent bacterial degradation of beta-lactam antibiotics and thus extend the range of bacteria the drugs are effective against.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ceftobiprole</span> Chemical compound

Ceftobiprole, sold under the brand name Zevtera among others, is a fifth-generation cephalosporin antibacterial used for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia and community-acquired pneumonia. It is marketed by Basilea Pharmaceutica under the brand names Zevtera and Mabelio. Like other cephalosporins, ceftobiprole exerts its antibacterial activity by binding to important penicillin-binding proteins and inhibiting their transpeptidase activity which is essential for the synthesis of bacterial cell walls. Ceftobiprole has high affinity for penicillin-binding protein 2a of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains and retains its activity against strains that express divergent mecA gene homologues. Ceftobiprole also binds to penicillin-binding protein 2b in Streptococcus pneumoniae (penicillin-intermediate), to penicillin-binding protein 2x in Streptococcus pneumoniae (penicillin-resistant), and to penicillin-binding protein 5 in Enterococcus faecalis.

Febrile neutropenia is the development of fever, often with other signs of infection, in a patient with neutropenia, an abnormally low number of neutrophil granulocytes in the blood. It is an oncologic emergency, and is the most common serious complication in patients with hematopoietic cancers or receiving chemotherapy for cancer. The term neutropenic sepsis is also applied, although it tends to be reserved for patients who are less well. In 50% of cases, an infection is detectable; bacteremia is present in approximately 20% of all patients with this condition.

The WHO AWaRe Classification is a method to categorize antibiotics into three groups in an effort to improve appropriate antibiotic use. The classification is based, in part, on the risk of developing antibiotic resistance and their importance to medicine. It does not reflect effectiveness or strength. It is accompanied by a book that outlines which and how to use antibiotics in 34 common infections.

References

  1. ↑ Pelczar, M. J.; Chan, E. C. S. and Krieg, N. R. (1999) "Host-Parasite Interaction; Nonspecific Host Resistance", In: Microbiology Concepts and Applications, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill Inc., New York pp. 478-479.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Aoki M (2015). レジデントのための感染症診療マニュアル. Japan: 医学書院. ISBN   978-4-260-02027-5.
  3. ↑ Zhanel GG, Lam A, Schweizer F, Thomson K, Walkty A, Rubinstein E, Gin AS, Hoban DJ, Noreddin AM, Karlowsky JA (2008). "Ceftobiprole: a review of a broad-spectrum and anti-MRSA cephalosporin". American Journal of Clinical Dermatology. 9 (4): 245–54. doi:10.2165/00128071-200809040-00004. PMID   18572975. S2CID   24357533.
  4. 1 2 3 4 For common Uses and possible side effects reference is: Robert Berkow (ed.) The Merck Manual of Medical Information - Home Edition . Pocket (September 1999), ISBN   0-671-02727-1.
  5. ↑ "Neomycin Drug Information". uptodate. Retrieved November 2, 2012.(subscription required)
  6. ↑ Berger DS (2014-04-03). GIDEON Guide to Antimicrobial Agents (2014 ed.). GIDEON Informatics Inc. p. 221. ISBN   978-1-61755-839-9 . Retrieved 4 February 2015.
  7. ↑ Splete H, Kerri Wachter (March 2006). "Liver toxicity reported with Ketek". Internal Medicine News.
  8. ↑ McDonald LC, Gerding DN, Johnson S, Bakken JS, Carroll KC, Coffin SE, Dubberke ER, Garey KW, Gould CV, Kelly C, Loo V, Shaklee Sammons J, Sandora TJ, Wilcox MH (March 2018). "Clinical Practice Guidelines for Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults and Children: 2017 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA)". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 66 (7): e1–e48. doi:10.1093/cid/cix1085. PMC   6018983 . PMID   29462280.
  9. ↑ Tannock GW, Munro K, Taylor C, Lawley B, Young W, Byrne B, Emery J, Louie T (November 2010). "A new macrocyclic antibiotic, fidaxomicin (OPT-80), causes less alteration to the bowel microbiota of Clostridium difficile-infected patients than does vancomycin". Microbiology. 156 (Pt 11): 3354–9. doi: 10.1099/mic.0.042010-0 . PMID   20724385.
  10. 1 2 Dificid (fidaxomicin) [prescribing information] Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck; December 2015.
  11. ↑ Casellas JM, Israele V, Marín M, Ishida MT, Heguilen R, Soutric J, Arenoso H, Sibbald A, Stamboulian D (September 2005). "Amoxicillin-sulbactam versus amoxicillin-clavulanic acid for the treatment of non-recurrent-acute otitis media in Argentinean children". International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology. 69 (9): 1225–33. doi:10.1016/j.ijporl.2005.03.016. PMID   16061111.
  12. ↑ "APO-Amoxycillin and Clavulanic Acid 500mg/125 mg Tablets" (PDF). Retrieved November 27, 2014.
  13. ↑ Mechanism of Action of Bacitracin: Complexation with Metal Ion and C55-Isoprenyl Pyrophosphate K. John Stone and Jack L. Strominger
  14. ↑ "List of Antibiotics" . Retrieved February 7, 2014.
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