Micromobility

Last updated
Two bikeshare BikeRio users ride in the street along Copacabana Beach during ciclovia in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2018. BikeRio users during Ciclovia.jpg
Two bikeshare BikeRio users ride in the street along Copacabana Beach during ciclovia in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2018.

Micromobility refers to a range of small, lightweight vehicles, driven by users personally. Micromobility devices include bicycles, velomobiles, e-bikes, electric scooters, electric skateboards, shared bicycle fleets, and electric pedal assisted (pedelec) bicycles. [1] [2] [3]

Contents

Initial definitions set the primary condition for inclusion in the category of micromobility to be a gross vehicle weight of less than 500 kilograms (1,100 lb). [4] [5] However, according to a standard of the SAE International in 2018 the definition has evolved to exclude devices with internal combustion engines and those with top speeds above 45 kilometres per hour (28 mph). [6]

The term micromobility was originally coined by Horace Dediu in 2017. [7] [8]

Characteristics

Micromobility uses wheeled vehicles that are low-speed, operated by a single person, and meant for travel over a short distance. [9]  Micromobility can use a combination of any, human-powered, combustion and electric based propulsion. The legality of micro-mobility, and its usage, will vary depending on jurisdiction.

Micromobility can use privately owned vehicles or those available as rental vehicles, often in the form of dockless sharing. [10]

Devices that fall within the definition of micromobility in the European Union are typically classified as bicycles and are permitted to use bicycle infrastructure such as protected bicycle lanes, cycle tracks, cycle highways, and off-street trails. Classification as bicycles also exempts users from requirement to register them, pay vehicle registration fees, or maintain liability insurance. [11] [12]

Within the European Union vehicle categorization, micromobility vehicles fall under the L category, and are excluded from the M, N, O and higher categories. [13]

Examples

Bikes, electric scooters, and skateboards are all micromobility vehicles. [14] Other types include golf carts, kick scooters, Onewheel, personal transporters, roller skates, Segways, unicycles, tricycles, handcycles, mobility scooter, quadracycles, and wheelchairs. [14]

Light electric vehicles

Many types of micromobility vehicles are also classified as light electric vehicles (LEVs). Examples of light electric vehicles include electric bicycles, electric scooters, electric skateboards, electric unicycle, and onewheel. [15] Vehicles that are classified as LEVs differ based on individual country regulations. [15] Light electric vehicles cannot be constructed to exceed 25 km/h. [15] Further classification of light electric vehicle differs between countries. [15] The classification can be based on characteristics such as total mass and maximum power output. [15]

History

Micromobility vehicles such as bicycles and scooters, have been in use since the 19th century, but in the early 20th century cars began to dominate in modal share in cities such as New York. [16] Since then, the use of bicycles for utilitarian urban transport (as opposed to recreation or sport) has been relatively low in comparison to trips made by larger vehicles outside of a few cities in China, the Netherlands, and Denmark. [17]

Origins

Micromobility was originally in the form of bicycle-sharing services in Europe. [18] The very first generation of bicycle-sharing was non-profit and small in scale, with the central aim to address the social and environmental impacts of urban sprawl. [18] The white bike program in Amsterdam was unveiled in 1965, where 50 white bikes were unlocked and presented to the public, completely free of charge. [18] Despite the program's good intentions, there were a number of significant issues resulting from theft, unorganized return spots, and overall dysfunction of the system. [18] Similar programs were created in the following years in France (1974) and the Netherlands (1975), all located in densely populated areas of cities. [18]

The second generation of bicycle-sharing services revolutionized the previously non-profit program into a more organized business endeavor. With docking stations and coin depositories, this approach made its way across trans-continental borders, as Wisconsin and Texas were notable adopters of the new model. [18] Norway (1996), Finland (2000), and Denmark (2005) were among the first three countries to include locks to deter the previous predecessor's problems. However, there was still a major issue regarding the reliability of bike-sharing: the bikes themselves. [18]

The third generation of bicycle-sharing services attempted to establish a sense of reliability and functionality with the help of advanced technologies. Tracking of each individual bicycle was enabled, reservations could be made through smart phones, and payment options were digitally compatible. [18] As a result, the popularity of bicycle-sharing services reached a new peak. Over 100 sharing services were created spanning across 125 cities in 4 continents, though France was, arguably, the most notable. The implementation of Velo'v in 2005 was the first sharing system that integrated advanced technology, resulting in over 1,500 bicycles available through reservation from Velo'v alone. LE Velo'v STAR (2009) and Vélib were other programs that were created in conjunction with this new iteration of micromobility. [18]

The fourth generation of bicycle-sharing services integrated further functionality and compatibility with multi-modal technologies and advanced payment interfaces. E-bikes replaced the original bicycle, and fully digitized touch screen kiosks provided a more user-friendly customer experience. BIXI, a Canadian-based service company were among the first to douse the bicycle-sharing service with 21st century technological advances. [18] Due to the enhanced features, BIXI became the very first large-scale North American bike-sharing company, ultimately paving the way for further innovations with micromobility. [18]

Pedalless

In 1655, Stephan Farffler, a 22-year-old paraplegic watchmaker, built the world's first self-propelling chair on a three-wheel chassis using a system of cranks and cogwheels. [19] [20] However, the device had an appearance of a hand bike more than a wheelchair since the design included hand cranks mounted at the front wheel. The invalid carriage or Bath chair brought the technology into more common use from around 1760. [21] William Kent developed an early stroller in 1733. [22] Strollers became affordable and widespread due to new manufacturing materials in the 1930s. The push scooter was invented by Denis Johnson in 1819 and usually constructed mainly from wood. Motorised scooters first appeared as autopeds enjoying a brief boom in popularity in 1915. [23] The aluminium folding scooter popularised the push scooter in the 1990s. [24] E-scooters first appeared in 2003. [25] In 1882 a sports newspaper in Stockholm first reported a kicksled as a vehicle that could be kicked forwards on ice and snow. [26] In 1965, Owen Maclaren designed a lightweight stroller with an aluminium frame further popularising the stroller. In the 1960s and 1970s skateboards enjoyed popularity, displacing kick scooters which nearly disappeared completely.

Pedal

The pedal-powered tricycle was invented by two Frenchmen, named Blanchard and Maguier in 1789. It predates the invention of the bicycle in Germany by Karl von Drais in 1817 (which did not use pedals until the 1860s). Tricycles were not popular until 1876, when James Starley introduced the Coventry Lever Tricycle, a side-driven two-track, lever-driven machine, which started the tricycling craze in Great Britain.  [27] This was replaced with the bike boom of the 1890s as a result of the popular introduction of Starley's safety bicycle.

Human-powered quadracycles were invented in 1853 and enjoyed modest popularity. [28] This was followed by quadricycles in 1896 which included a motor. Recumbent bicycles were invented in 1893. Velomobiles (essentially enclosed recumbents) were invented in 1927. Velocars were invented by Mochet in 1932. The first mass-produced electric velomobile was the Sinclair C5.

Rental

While micromobility vehicles have long been available for users to purchase, it was the servitization of these modes of transportation—enabling users to use the nearest micromobility vehicle without having to purchase or store it, and facilitating the flexibility of one-way trips—that led to growth [29] in areas where it was available. The rise of the sharing economy resulted in a massive increase in access to micromobility in many cities, first with the introduction of public bikeshare systems, and then with privately funded and operated dockless bikeshare and electric kick scooter (e-scooter) fleets. Most early bikeshare services specified locations, or docks, where vehicles needed to be picked up and left. From 2022 on, the so-called hybrid model, locking systems that can be locked both with and without a dock at the same time, and compatible internet-of-things (IOT) platforms have been developed. [30]

21st century

Personal and shared bicycles and Tier Mobility e-scooter-sharing system in Berlin, Germany, 2019. Micromobility users in Berlin.jpg
Personal and shared bicycles and Tier Mobility e-scooter-sharing system in Berlin, Germany, 2019.

The second generation was dockless bicycle-sharing, introduced in 2000; the third was dockless electric bicycle sharing, introduced in 2017. [31]

The fourth generation of bicycle sharing services employed a dockless model which allows users to end their trip and leave the shared micromobility device anywhere or within a geo-fenced area. Dockless bikeshare first took off in Chinese megacities, [32] and although it began with traditional, non-electric bicycles, it served as a template for what would be possible with electric and motorized bicycles, scooters, and other form factors. The availability of relatively inexpensive batteries, displays and GPS receivers, enabled by the smartphone supply chains, provided easily accessible components to facilitate dockless services worldwide. [33] Outside of Chinese cities, non-electric dockless bikeshare has largely disappeared, with many companies switching from bicycles to electric kick scooters in 2019. [34]

E-scooters, a form of micromobility, are popular in cities for short trips. Grin e-scooter rider in Mexico City.jpg
E-scooters, a form of micromobility, are popular in cities for short trips.

Shared electric kick scooters are considered to have one of the most rapid adoption rates in transport, nearly 4% in one year. Comparatively, it took bikeshare eight years to reach 13% adoption, and carshare 18 years to reach 16% in major United States cities. [35]

Popularity and reception

The speed of micromobility diffusion has not come without growing pains. Some cities were caught off guard with the sudden influx of shared dockless vehicles, especially after companies launched their fleets without municipal approval. [36] In 2018, Seattle became the first US city to establish a permanent regulatory permit requiring shared dockless vehicle operators to meet certain requirements in order to provide service in the city. [37] Many other cities followed suit, drafting regulatory frameworks that would permit these services and more seamlessly integrate them with existing transportation. [38]

Operators, users and municipalities are moving toward an equilibrium where the benefits of micromobility have become apparent. [39] Micromobility users have reported replacing between one-quarter [40] and one-third [41] of car trips with micromobility, and many users report being able to take trips they otherwise would not or could not have made if micromobility options were not available. The potential for micromobility to replace automobile trips, coupled with financial opportunities presented by the massive injection of venture capital into the industry, has led to global automakers such as Ford and General Motors to invest in micromobility services. [42]

However, data shows that micromobility users also replace public transit (notably, bus) and walking trips. Concerns have also been raised about the life-cycle emissions of electric micromobility modes such as e-scooters, [43] as well as the long-term financial viability of micromobility companies given minimal differences between product offerings and operating costs in the hundreds of millions of US dollars. [44]

According to INRIX, [45] [46] the United States cities with the highest micromobility potential (in descending order) in 2019 were Honolulu, New Orleans, Nashville, Chicago, Charlotte, New York City, Portland, Pittsburg, Los Angeles, San Francisco.

Infrastructure

As micromobility vehicles are road vehicles, existing road infrastructure can be used without further investment. [47] Infrastructure for micromobility can include cycle lanes, ramps and docking stations. [47] Many cycle lanes only permit bicycles.

Commercialization

Ownership model

The ownership segment of the market relies on consumers who have purchased their own micromobility vehicle, usually distributed through retailers. [48] The global market for bike ownership is large in comparison to other business models, due to the fact that subscription and bike-sharing models were introduced much more recently. However, the growth of the ownership/retail market for micromobility vehicles has been minor in comparison to other faster growing options such as vehicle rental as of 2021. [49]

Rental model

Mobility as a service (MaaS) in the context of micromobility, is the rental of vehicles as a service, allowing consumers to rent vehicles for a temporary period. [48] Examples of companies that employ this model are Bird, Yulu (based in India), Dott, Lime, and Bolt. [50] One mode of payment follows the pay-per-trip model, which consists of an unlock fee, as well as a per-minute rate which is charged to the user at the end of the trip (according to model used by Bird). [51] The subscription model is an alternative method of payment, which consists of paying an often-monthly recurring fee, to have access to the vehicle service throughout the subscribed period. [52] According to the Boston Consulting Group, subscription-based vehicle services are the fastest-growing option for micromobility usage, with the compound annual growth rate predicted to go up to 30% by 2030. [53] Micromobility sharing and rental services have grown in the United States, with an approximately 60% increase in usage in 2019, compared to 2018. There were 136 million recorded micromobility service trips in 2019, of which 96 million used dockless vehicles, while the remaining 40 million used dock stationed vehicles. [54]

Issues

There are a lot of mechanical, electrical, and human factors hazards associated with micromobility products, which calls for aggressive policies in order to reduce injuries. The three major danger categories that apply to micromobility goods are mechanical, electrical, and human factors. Falls, collisions with objects, pedestrians, and moving cars are a few examples of mechanical risks, as are structural or frame breakdowns and braking problems. Electrical risks include issues with battery charging, fires caused by mechanical battery mounting problems (battery short-circuiting), and braking issues as a result of software faults. The risks mentioned above, as well as those related to user expectations and reasonably foreseen use cases, such as those involving user positioning (for example, probable forward body positioning due to handle placement and foot area width) and the location or operation of emergency controls (for example, brakes), which affect the user's capacity to react safely in an emergency, are all examples of human factors hazards. [55]

Safety

Ridesharing and rental scooters have increased popularity and usage of micromobility products, resulting in being potentially used in more congested areas. This might increase the chance of accidents, especially because helmet use is limited.

There have been several injuries and deaths resulting from micro mobility products especially e-scooters, which calls for tighter personal safety regulations and policies. Between 2015 and 2019, there have been over 330 fire-related incidents concerned with micromobility products which led to more $9 million in property damage. Additionally, from 2015 through 2018 use of self balancing scooters have resulted in more than 70000 emergency room visits from falls. [55]

Personal micromobility safety can be improved by raising awareness and training, making safety equipment mandatory for riders universally, enforcement of blood alcohol content (BAC) limits for riders, and a safer infrastructure.

Different regions have different laws regarding micromobility. While some states in the US allow riding without helmets, others have helmets as a legal requirement while commuting on micromobility products. [56]

United Kingdom

Due to a clause in the Highways Act, these essential micromobility modes are currently prohibited in cycle lanes and on pedestrian walkways. In 2019 the Department of Transportation took steps to encourage legal change as part of the "Future of Transport" program [57] to support micromobility options and has polled the public on the subject. E-scooters and other similar modes of transportation are the subject of numerous local trials analyzing the effects, advantages, and difficulties they provide. One example that has been successful is in Cambridge, where e-bikes have joined e-scooters on the streets. [58]

European Union

Across the EU, different countries have their own legislations with respect to electric scooters and electric bikes. For example, Germany allowed e-scooters on roads with a maximum speed of 20 km/h (12.4 mph). [59] In France, e-scooter parking on sidewalks is prohibited and carries a €135 fine. Additionally, e-scooters cannot technically travel at speeds greater than 25 km/h (15.5 mph) in Paris. [60] Most countries in Europe have converged around the 25 km/h (15.5 mph) speed limit consensus. [61]

United States

There has been a lack of focus surrounding the micromobility sector in the US, so different states have their own laws with respect to micromobility products. 10 states have banned the use of e-scooters in public, while 38 states permit their use.[ as of? ] Hawaii recently incorporated electric scooters into traffic law. [62] [63]

Infrastructure in the United States

The 2022 Inflation Reduction Act provided opportunities for improving the micromobility infrastructure globally. [64] Some of the infrastructure limitations include a lack of charging stations and lack of bike lanes for micromobility. [65] A proposed solution is integration of a micromobility system into the pre-existing infrastructure in order to streamline the experience. Improving the micromobility infrastructure can lead to a reduction in emissions and contribute to the carbon neutrality goal. [66]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bicycle-sharing system</span> Short-time bicycle rental service

A bicycle-sharing system, bike share program, public bicycle scheme, or public bike share (PBS) scheme, is a shared transport service where bicycles are available for shared use by individuals at low cost.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Motorized scooter</span> Powered stand-up scooter

A motorized scooter is a stand-up scooter powered by either a small internal combustion engine or electric hub motor in its front and/or rear wheel. Classified as a form of micromobility, they are generally designed with a large center deck on which the rider stands. The first motorized scooter was manufactured by Autoped in 1915.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shared transport</span> Demand-driven vehicle-sharing arrangement

Shared transport or shared mobility is a transportation system where travelers share a vehicle either simultaneously as a group or over time as personal rental, and in the process share the cost of the journey. It is a transportation strategy that allows users to access transportation services on an as-needed basis, and can be regarded as a hybrid between private vehicle use and mass or public transport. Shared mobility is an umbrella term that encompasses a variety of transportation modes including carsharing, Bicycle-sharing systems, ridesharing companies, carpools, and microtransit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Di Blasi Industriale</span>

Di Blasi Industriale is an Italian manufacturer of folding bicycles, tricycles, mopeds and scooter based in Vizzini, Sicily. The company's products are suitable for being transported by car, boat, or airplane, and are designed and manufactured entirely in-house.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Capital Bikeshare</span> Bike sharing system in the Washington, D.C., area

Capital Bikeshare is a bicycle-sharing system that serves Washington, D.C., and certain counties of the larger metropolitan area. As of January 2023, it had 700+ stations and more than 5,400 bicycles. The member jurisdictions own most of the equipment and have sourced operations to contractor Motivate International. Opened in September 2010, the system was the largest bike sharing service in the United States until New York City's Citi Bike began operations in May 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Last mile (transportation)</span> Last leg of the movement of people or goods from hubs

In supply chain management and transportation planning, the last mile or last kilometer is the last leg of a journey comprising the movement of passengers and goods from a transportation hub to a final destination. The concept of "last mile" was adopted from the telecommunications industry, which faced difficulty connecting individual homes to the main telecommunications network. Similarly, in supply chain management, the last mile describes the logistical challenges at the last phase of transportation getting people and packages from hubs to their final destinations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bay Wheels</span>

Bay Wheels is a regional public bicycle sharing system in California's San Francisco Bay Area. It is operated by Motivate in a partnership with the Metropolitan Transportation Commission and the Bay Area Air Quality Management District. Bay Wheels is the first regional and large-scale bicycle sharing system deployed in California and on the West Coast of the United States. It was established as Bay Area Bike Share in August 2013. As of January 2018, the Bay Wheels system had over 2,600 bicycles in 262 stations across San Francisco, East Bay and San Jose.

The Seattle Department of Transportation (SDOT) is a municipal government agency in Seattle, Washington that is responsible for the maintenance of the city's transportation systems, including roads, bridges, and public transportation. The agency is funded primarily by taxes that are supplemented by voter-approved levies from other sources; its budget in 2017 was $450 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baltimore Bike Share</span> Bicycle sharing system

Baltimore Bike Share was a bicycle sharing system that served the city of Baltimore, Maryland. The system had more than 50 stations, all owned by the Baltimore City government, and operated in a public–private partnership with Bewegen Technologies and Corps Logistics. Launched in 2016, Baltimore Bike Share had the largest electrical-assisted cycling (Pedelec) fleet in North America.

Mobike, also known as Meituanbike, founded by Beijing Mobike Technology Co., Ltd., is a fully station-less bicycle-sharing system headquartered in Beijing, China. It is, by the number of bicycles, the world's largest shared bicycle operator, making Shanghai the world's largest bike-share city in December 2016. In April 2018, it was acquired by a Chinese web company Meituan-Dianping for US$2.7 billion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Personal transporter</span> Ridable small motorised road vehicles

A personal transporter is any of a class of compact, mostly recent, motorised micromobility vehicle for transporting an individual at speeds that do not normally exceed 25 km/h (16 mph). They include electric skateboards, kick scooters, self-balancing unicycles and Segways, as well as gasoline-fueled motorised scooters or skateboards, typically using two-stroke engines of less than 49 cc (3.0 cu in) displacement. Many newer versions use recent advances in vehicle battery and motor-control technologies. They are growing in popularity, and legislators are in the process of determining how these devices should be classified, regulated and accommodated during a period of rapid innovation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lime (transportation company)</span> American micromobility company

Neutron Holdings, Inc., doing business under the name Lime, formerly LimeBike, is an American transportation company based in San Francisco, California. It runs electric scooters, electric bikes and electric mopeds in more than 200 cities in nearly 30 countries around the world. The system offers dockless vehicles that users find and unlock via a smartphone app that knows the location of available vehicles via GPS.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spin (company)</span>

Spin is an electric bicycle-sharing and electric scooter-sharing company. It is based in San Francisco and was founded as a start-up in 2017, launching as a dockless bicycle-sharing system controlled by a mobile app for reservations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jump (transportation company)</span>

Jump was a dockless scooter and electric bicycle sharing system operating in the United States, New Zealand, Canada, France, Germany, Portugal, the United Kingdom, Mexico and Australia. The bikes were a bright red orange and weighed 70 pounds (32 kg). Riders unlocked bikes using the Uber app and were charged to their Uber account.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scoot Networks</span>

Scoot Networks, also known as just Scoot or Scoot Rides, is an American company which provides public electric scooter and electric bicycle sharing systems. The company is based in San Francisco, California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bird Global</span> Dockless scooter-sharing provider

Bird Global, Inc. is a micromobility company based in Miami, Florida. Founded in September 2017, Bird has distributed electric scooters designed for short-term rental to over 400 cities. In April 2024, it was acquired by Third Lane Mobility to avoid bankruptcy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scooter-sharing system</span> Service for short-term scooter rentals

A scooter-sharing system or kicksharing system is a shared transport service in which electric motorized scooters are made available to use for short-term rentals. E-scooters are typically "dockless", meaning that they do not have a fixed home location and are dropped off and picked up from certain locations in the service area.

Yulu is an Indian company headquartered in Bengaluru. It provides shared low-speed two-wheeler electric vehicle (EV) services in Bengaluru, Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Delhi, Gurugram, Noida and Hyderabad. It also has a presence in Indore, Kochi, Tirunelveli and Pondicherry through local partners. Yulu operates 40,000 dockless shared EVs and has four million users. Riders using Yulu have travelled 700 million km, helped save 27 million kg of CO2 emissions and have made 160 million green deliveries till date.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycling in the Philippines</span> Popular mode of transport and sport in the Philippines

Cycling is a popular mode of transport and recreational sport in the Philippines. Bicycles were first introduced to the archipelago in the 1880s during the Spanish colonial occupation of the Philippines and served as a common mode of transport, especially among the local mestizo population.

References

  1. ↑ "The Electric Assist: Leveraging E-bikes and E-scooters for More Livable Cities" (PDF). Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. 2019. Retrieved April 7, 2020.
  2. ↑ McQueen, Michael; Abou-Zeid, Gabriella; MacArthur, John; Clifton, Kelly (2021). "Transportation Transformation: Is Micromobility Making a Macro Impact on Sustainability?". Journal of Planning Literature . 36 (1): 46–61. doi: 10.1177/0885412220972696 .
  3. ↑ Olabi, A. G.; Wilberforce, Tabbi; Obaideen, Khaled; Sayed, Enas Taha; Shehata, Nabila; Alami, Abdul Hai; Abdelkareem, Mohammad Ali (2023). "Micromobility: Progress, benefits, challenges, policy and regulations, energy sources and storage, and its role in achieving sustainable development goals". International Journal of Thermofluids. 17: 100292. Bibcode:2023IJTf...1700292O. doi: 10.1016/j.ijft.2023.100292 .
  4. ↑ Dediu, Horace. "The Micromobility Definition". micromobility.io. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  5. ↑ Zarif, Rasheq; Pankratz, Derek; Kelman, Ben. "Small is beautiful: Making micromobility work for citizens, cities, and service providers". Deloitte Insights.
  6. ↑ O'Hern, Steve; Estgfaeller, Nora (2020-11-15). "A Scientometric Review of Powered Micromobility". Sustainability. 12 (22): 9505. doi: 10.3390/su12229505 . ISSN   2071-1050.
  7. ↑ "The Micromobility Definition". Micromobility. Retrieved 2022-10-14.
  8. ↑ Latz, Phil. "Everything you need to know about Micromobility". Micromobility Report. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
  9. ↑ "Definition of MICROMOBILITY". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  10. ↑ Tuncer, Sylvaine; Brown, Barry (2020-04-21). "E-scooters on the Ground: Lessons for Redesigning Urban Micro-Mobility". Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. New York, NY, USA: ACM. pp. 1–14. doi:10.1145/3313831.3376499. ISBN   9781450367080. S2CID   218483131.
  11. ↑ Reid, Carlton. "EU Electric Bike Riders Will Not Need Compulsory Insurance Decides European Parliament". Forbes. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  12. ↑ "E-Bike Law Primer" (PDF). People for Bikes. April 2018. Retrieved April 7, 2020.
  13. ↑ "EU classification of vehicle types | European Alternative Fuels Observatory". alternative-fuels-observatory.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  14. 1 2 "Micromobility - Fact Sheets - Livability - FHWA". Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) . Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 "Light electric vehicles (LEVs)". swov.nl. 4 October 2021. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  16. ↑ Sovacool, Benjamin K. (1 March 2009). "Early modes of transport in the United States: Lessons for modern energy policymakers". Policy and Society. 27 (4): 411–427. doi: 10.1016/j.polsoc.2009.01.006 . ISSN   1449-4035.
  17. ↑ Pucher, John; Buehler, Ralph (July 2008). "Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany". Transport Reviews. 28 (4): 495–528. doi:10.1080/01441640701806612. ISSN   0144-1647. S2CID   154630124.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Abduljabbar, Rusul L.; Liyanage, Sohani; Dia, Hussein (2021-03-01). "The role of micro-mobility in shaping sustainable cities: A systematic literature review". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 92: 102734. Bibcode:2021TRPD...9202734A. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2021.102734. ISSN   1361-9209. S2CID   233789420.
  19. ↑ Bellis, Mary. "History of the Wheelchair". thoughtco.com. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
  20. ↑ Koerth-Baker, Maggie (2 February 2009). "Who Invented the Wheelchair?". mentalfloss.com. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
  21. ↑ "A History of the World – Object: Bath Chair". BBC. 2012-09-02. Retrieved 2012-11-19.
  22. ↑ Amato, Joseph (November 2004). On foot: a history of walking - Google Book Search. NYU Press. ISBN   9780814705025 . Retrieved 2009-03-24.
  23. ↑ Mansky, Jackie. "The Motorized Scooter Boom That Hit a Century Before Dockless Scooters". Smithsonian Magazine.
  24. ↑ "HISTORY". August 2, 2014.
  25. ↑ "The Man Behind the Scooter Revolution". Bloomberg.com. 26 September 2018.
  26. ↑ "Bubble Bike Store". Bubble Bike Store.
  27. ↑ "* 2. History of Tricycles". April 11, 2009.
  28. ↑ "History of Quadracycles - Types and Facts". www.bicyclehistory.net.
  29. ↑ "Lime, Bird, Spin: Why scooter start-ups are suddenly worth billions". CNBC . 2018-07-13.
  30. ↑ "Scootable for Micromobility Solutions". Scootable. 30 May 2022. Retrieved 2022-05-30.
  31. ↑ "The Three Eras of Micromobility". Micromobility Industries.
  32. ↑ "China's Bike-Sharing Fever Has Reached Saturation Point". Time.
  33. ↑ Belton, Padraig (2018-05-15). "How cheap dockless hire bikes are flooding the world". BBC News.
  34. ↑ Vuocolo, Alex (2019-03-04). "Why Are Bike Share Companies Pivoting to E-Scooters?". Bicycling. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  35. ↑ Clewlow, Regina (2018-08-06). "The Micro-Mobility Revolution". Medium. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  36. ↑ Lazo, Luz (4 August 2018). "Dockless bike, scooter firms clash with U.S. cities over regulations". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  37. ↑ "Seattle Bikeshare Program & Permit Process". MOD Learning Center. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  38. ↑ Manchester, Julia (2018-12-12). "Growing use of e-scooters reflects increasing demand for micro-mobility, says tech CEO". TheHill . Retrieved 2019-01-18.
  39. ↑ Feasley, Levi Tillemann ,Lassor (2018-12-07). "Forget the Car. E-Scooters Could Save The City". Wired. ISSN   1059-1028 . Retrieved 2019-01-18.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ↑ Lime (October 2019). "Lime for a Sustainable Paris" (PDF). Retrieved April 7, 2020.
  41. ↑ Portland Bureau of Transportation (2018). "2018 E-Scooter Findings Report" . Retrieved April 7, 2020.
  42. ↑ Rosevear, John (2018-12-07). "Micromobility 101 for Investors -". The Motley Fool . Retrieved 2019-01-18.
  43. ↑ Moreau, Hélie; de Jamblinne de Meux, Loïc; Zeller, Vanessa; D'Ans, Pierre; Ruwet, Coline; Achten, Wouter M. J. (January 2020). "Dockless E-Scooter: A Green Solution for Mobility? Comparative Case Study between Dockless E-Scooters, Displaced Transport, and Personal E-Scooters". Sustainability. 12 (5): 1803. doi: 10.3390/su12051803 .
  44. ↑ Bliss, Laura (27 January 2020). "4 Predictions for the Electric Scooter Industry". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
  45. ↑ Wu, Nina (2019-09-12). "Study ranks Honolulu tops in micromobility potential". Star-Advertiser . Honolulu . Retrieved 2019-09-13.
  46. ↑ "Shared Bikes and Scooters Could Replace Nearly 50 Percent of Downtown Vehicle Trips: New INRIX Research ranks the top U.S., U.K. and German cities where micromobility has the most potential". INRIX . Kirkland, Washington. 2019-09-09. Retrieved 2019-09-13.
  47. 1 2 "Small is beautiful". Deloitte Insights. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  48. 1 2 Rane, Romil Tushar (2022-01-19). A strategic business model analysis of the micromobility industry (masterThesis).
  49. ↑ "Putting Micromobility at the Center of Urban Mobility". BCG Global. 2022-05-16. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  50. ↑ Pobudzei, Maryna; Sellaouti, Anis; Tiessler, Michaela; Hoffmann, Silja (2022-09-26). "Riders on the Storm: Exploring Meteorological and Temporal Impacts on Shared E-Scooters (SES) in Munich, Germany". 2022 IEEE International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2). IEEE. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/isc255366.2022.9922429. ISBN   978-1-6654-8561-6. S2CID   253122869.
  51. ↑ "Bird Scooter Cost: Pricing, Fees, And More | Ridester.com". www.ridester.com. 2021-09-02. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  52. ↑ "Subscription models, the future of shared micromobility?". Shared Micromobility. 2020-09-23. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  53. ↑ "Putting Micromobility at the Center of Urban Mobility". BCG Global. 2022-05-16. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  54. ↑ "Shared Micromobility in the U.S.: 2019". National Association of City Transportation Officials. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
  55. 1 2 Consumer Product Safety Commission. Office of Hazard Identification and Reduction, ed. (2020-04-08). "Safety Concerns Associated with Micromobility Products".
  56. ↑ Trivedi, Bhavin; Kesterke, Matthew J.; Bhattacharjee, Ritesh; Weber, William; Mynar, Karen; Reddy, Likith V. (2019-11-01). "Craniofacial Injuries Seen With the Introduction of Bicycle-Share Electric Scooters in an Urban Setting". Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 77 (11): 2292–2297. doi: 10.1016/j.joms.2019.07.014 . ISSN   0278-2391. PMID   31454504. S2CID   201167172.
  57. ↑ "Future of Transport programme". GOV.UK. March 19, 2019.
  58. ↑ "E-scooter trials: guidance for local authorities and rental operators". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  59. ↑ "Germany: Regulation to Allow Use of E-scooters on Public Roads Enacted". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  60. ↑ Daniella (2022-02-16). "European kick scooter laws in 2022: How to ride legally". NIU Community. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  61. ↑ Laboratory., Comisión Europea Dirección General de Mercado Interior, Industria, Emprendimiento y Pymes. Transport Research (2021). STUDY on market development and related road safety risks for L-category vehicles and new personal mobility devices. Publications Office of the European Union. ISBN   978-92-76-30148-6. OCLC   1337482097.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  62. ↑ Staff, H. N. N. (12 December 2019). "New law signed, aimed at regulating 'micro-mobility' companies on Oahu". www.hawaiinewsnow.com. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  63. ↑ JK (2021-07-07). "International Legal Positions on Micromobility" . Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  64. ↑ "Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 | Internal Revenue Service". www.irs.gov. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
  65. ↑ Stehlin, John G.; Payne, Will B. (2022-05-19). "Mesoscale Infrastructures and Uneven Development: Bicycle Sharing Systems in the United States as "Already Splintered" Urbanism". Annals of the American Association of Geographers. 112 (4): 1065–1083. Bibcode:2022AAAG..112.1065S. doi:10.1080/24694452.2021.1956874. ISSN   2469-4452. S2CID   244589744.
  66. ↑ Forum., International Transport (2021). Micromobility, Equity and Sustainability. OECD Publishing. ISBN   978-92-821-4334-6. OCLC   1319162071.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.