The French Connection (film)

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The French Connection
TheFrenchConnection.jpg
Theatrical release poster
Directed by William Friedkin
Screenplay by Ernest Tidyman
Based on The French Connection
by Robin Moore
Produced by Philip D'Antoni
Starring
Cinematography Owen Roizman
Edited by Gerald B. Greenberg
Music by Don Ellis
Production
companies
  • Philip D'Antoni Productions
  • Schine-Moore Productions
Distributed by 20th Century-Fox
Release date
  • October 7, 1971 (1971-10-07)(United States) [1]
Running time
104 minutes [2]
CountryUnited States
Languages
  • English
  • French
Budget$1.8–2.2 million [3] [4]
Box office$75 million (worldwide theatrical rental) [5]

The French Connection is a 1971 American neo-noir [6] action thriller film [7] directed by William Friedkin and starring Gene Hackman, Roy Scheider, and Fernando Rey. The screenplay, by Ernest Tidyman, is based on Robin Moore's 1969 nonfiction book. It tells the story of fictional New York Police Department detectives Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle and Buddy "Cloudy" Russo, whose real-life counterparts were narcotics detectives Eddie Egan and Sonny Grosso, in pursuit of wealthy French heroin smuggler Alain Charnier (played by Rey).

Contents

At the 44th Academy Awards, the film earned eight nominations and won five, for Best Picture, Best Actor (Hackman), Best Director, Best Film Editing, and Best Adapted Screenplay. It was also nominated for Best Supporting Actor (Scheider), Best Cinematography and Best Sound Mixing. Tidyman also received a Golden Globe Award nomination, a Writers Guild of America Award, and an Edgar Award for his screenplay. A sequel, French Connection II , followed in 1975, with Hackman and Rey reprising their roles.

Often considered one of the greatest films ever made, The French Connection appeared on the American Film Institute's list of the best American films in 1998 and again in 2007. In 2005, the Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the United States National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant". [8] [9]

Plot

In Marseille, a police detective follows Alain Charnier, who runs a heroin-smuggling syndicate. Charnier's hitman, Pierre Nicoli, murders the detective. Charnier plans to smuggle $32 million worth of heroin into the United States by hiding it in the car of his unsuspecting friend, television personality Henri Devereaux, who is traveling to New York City by ship. In New York, detectives Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle and Buddy "Cloudy" Russo go out for drinks at the Copacabana. Popeye observes Salvatore "Sal" Boca and his young wife, Angie, entertaining mobsters involved in narcotics. They tail the couple and establish a link between the Bocas and lawyer Joel Weinstock, a buyer in the narcotics underworld. Popeye learns that a shipment of heroin will arrive soon. The detectives convince their supervisor to wiretap the Bocas' phones. Popeye and Cloudy are joined by federal agents Mulderig and Klein.

Devereaux's vehicle arrives in New York City. Boca is in a hurry to make the purchase, but Weinstock urges patience, knowing they are being surveilled. Charnier realizes he is being surveilled as well, identifies Popeye as a detective, and escapes on a departing subway shuttle at Grand Central Station. To evade Popeye, he has Boca meet him in Washington D.C., where Boca asks for a delay to avoid the police. Charnier wants to conclude the deal quickly. On the flight back to New York City, Nicoli offers to kill Popeye, but Charnier says Popeye would just be replaced by another policeman. Nicoli insists, however, saying they will be back in France before a replacement is assigned. Soon, Nicoli attempts to snipe Popeye but misses. Popeye chases Nicoli, who boards an elevated subway train. Popeye shouts to a policeman on the train to catch Nicoli and then commandeers a passing car. He gives chase, crashing into several vehicles on the way.

Realizing he is being pursued, Nicoli shoots the policeman who tries to intervene, and hijacks the train at gunpoint, forcing the motorman to drive through the next station and shooting the conductor. The motorman suffers a heart attack, and the train is about to collide with another when the emergency brake engages, hurling Nicoli to the floor. Popeye arrives and sees Nicoli descending from the platform. Nicoli sees Popeye and turns to run, but Popeye shoots him dead. After a long stakeout, Popeye impounds Devereaux's Lincoln. In a police garage, mechanics tear the car apart, searching for drugs, but come up empty-handed. Then Cloudy discovers that the car's weight was 120 pounds over its standard weight, implying that the contraband must be in the car. Finally, they remove the rocker panels and find packages of heroin. Because the original car was destroyed during the search, the police substitute a lookalike and return it to Devereaux, who delivers it to Charnier.

Charnier drives to an old factory on Wards Island, where Boca's brother Lou works, to meet Weinstock and deliver the drugs. After Charnier has the rocker panel covers removed, Weinstock's chemist tests one of the bags and confirms its quality. Charnier removes the drugs and hides the money inside the rocker panels of another car purchased at a junk car auction, which he plans to take back to France. Charnier and Sal drive off in the Lincoln, but a large contingent of police led by Popeye blocks their path. The police chase the Lincoln back to the factory, where Boca is killed during a shootout. Most of the other criminals surrender. Charnier escapes into a nearby abandoned bakery with Popeye and Cloudy in pursuit. Popeye sees a shadowy figure in the distance and opens fire too late to heed a warning, killing Mulderig. Undaunted, he tells Cloudy he will get Charnier. He reloads his gun and runs into another room. A single gunshot is heard.

Title cards describe various characters' fates: Weinstock was indicted, but his case was dismissed for "lack of proper evidence"; Angie Boca received a suspended sentence for an unspecified misdemeanor; Lou Boca received a reduced sentence; Devereaux served four years in a federal penitentiary for conspiracy; Charnier was never caught. Popeye and Cloudy were transferred out of the narcotics division and reassigned.

Cast

Production

National General Pictures was originally set to produce the film but dropped it, and Richard Zanuck and David Brown offered to make it at Fox with a $1.5 million budget. [1] The film came in $300,000 over budget, at $1.8 million. [3]

In an audio commentary Friedkin recorded for the film's Collector's Edition DVD release, he says the film's documentary-like realism was the direct result of his having seen Costa-Gavras's Z . He describes Z's influence on The French Connection:

After I saw Z, I realized how I could shoot The French Connection. Because he shot Z like a documentary, it was a fiction film but it was made like it was actually happening—like the camera didn't know what was gonna happen next. And that is an induced technique. It looks like he happened upon the scene and captured what was going on as you do in a documentary. My first films were documentaries too, so I understood what he was doing, but I never thought you could do that in a feature at that time until I saw Z. [10]

The film was among the earliest to show the World Trade Center: the completed North Tower and partially completed South Tower are seen in the background of scenes at the shipyard after Devereaux arrives in New York.

Casting

Though the cast proved to be one of the film's greatest strengths, Friedkin had problems with casting from the start. He strongly opposed Gene Hackman as the lead, first considering Paul Newman (too expensive), then Jackie Gleason, Peter Boyle, and the columnist Jimmy Breslin, who had never acted. [11] The studio considered Gleason box-office poison after his film Gigot had flopped several years before, Boyle declined the role out of disapproval of the film's violence, and Breslin refused to get behind the wheel of a car, as Popeye does in an integral chase scene. Steve McQueen was also considered, but did not want to do another police film after Bullitt ; moreover, as with Newman, his fee was too high. Charles Bronson was also considered for the role. Lee Marvin, James Caan, and Robert Mitchum were also considered; all turned it down. [12] [13] Friedkin almost settled for Rod Taylor (who had actively pursued the role, according to Hackman), another choice the studio approved, before going with Hackman.

The casting of Fernando Rey as Alain Charnier (irreverently called "Frog One" throughout the film) resulted from mistaken identity. Friedkin had seen Luis Buñuel's 1967 film Belle de Jour and been impressed by the performance of Francisco Rabal, who had a small role in it. But Friedkin did not know Rabal's name, remembering only that he was a Spanish actor. He asked his casting director to find the actor, and the casting director contacted Rey, a Spanish actor who had appeared in several other Buñuel films. Rabal was finally reached, but because he spoke neither French nor English, Rey was kept in the film. [11]

Comparison to actual people and events

The plot centers on drug smuggling in the 1960s and early 1970s, when most of the heroin illegally imported into the East Coast came to the U.S. via France (see French Connection). [14]

On April 26, 1968, a record-setting 246 lb (111.6 kg) of heroin was seized, concealed in a Citroën DS and smuggled to New York on the SS France ocean liner. [15] [16] [17] The total amount smuggled during the DS's many transatlantic voyages was 1,606 lb (728.5 kg), according to arrested smuggler Jacques Bousquet. [18]

Like its two protagonists, several of the film's other characters have real-life counterparts. Alain Charnier is based on Jean Jehan, who was later arrested in Paris for drug trafficking but not extradited, because France does not extradite its citizens. [19] Sal Boca is based on Pasquale "Patsy" Fuca and his brother Anthony. Angie Boca is based on Patsy's wife, Barbara, who later wrote a book with Robin Moore detailing her life with Patsy. The Fucas and their uncle were part of a heroin-dealing crew that worked with New York crime families. [20]

Characters not prominently depicted in the film include the special agents and undercover operatives of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN), the federal agency primarily responsible for investigating the French Connection, who worked alongside NYPD detectives throughout most of these events until the FBN dissolved later in 1968. [21] [22]

Henri Devereaux, who takes the fall for importing the film's drug-laden Lincoln into New York, is based on Jacques Angelvin, a television actor arrested and sentenced to three to six years in a federal penitentiary for his role, serving about four before returning to France and turning to real estate. [23] According to the director's commentary, Joel Weinstock is a composite of several similar drug-dealing financiers. [24]

Car chase

The film is often cited as featuring one of the greatest car chase sequences in movie history. [25] The chase involves Popeye commandeering a civilian's car (a 1971 Pontiac LeMans) and frantically chasing an elevated train on which a hitman is trying to escape. The scene, coordinated by Bill Hickman, was filmed in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, roughly running under the BMT West End Line (now the D train, then the B train), which runs on an elevated track above Stillwell Avenue, 86th Street, and New Utrecht Avenue in Brooklyn, with the chase ending just north of the 62nd Street station. At that point, the train hits a train stop but is going too fast to stop in time and collides with the train ahead of it, which has just left the station. [a]

The scene's most famous shot is from a front bumper mount and shows the streets from a low angle. Director of photography Owen Roizman wrote in American Cinematographer magazine in 1972 that the camera was undercranked to 18 frames per second to enhance the sense of speed; this effect can be seen on a car at a red light whose exhaust pipe is pumping smoke at an accelerated rate. Other shots involved stunt drivers who were supposed to barely miss Doyle's car, but due to errors in timing, accidental collisions occurred that were left in the film. [26] Friedkin said he used Santana's cover of Peter Green's song "Black Magic Woman" during editing to help shape the chase sequence. The song does not appear in the film, but the chase scene "did have a sort of pre-ordained rhythm to it that came from the music". [27]

The scene concludes with Doyle confronting Nicoli at the stairs leading to the elevated train track and shooting him as he tries to run back up them, as captured in a still shot used in a theatrical release poster for the film. Many of the police officers who were advisers for the film objected to the scene on the grounds that shooting a suspect in the back is murder, not self-defense, but Friedkin stood by it, saying he was "secure in my conviction that that's exactly what Eddie Egan [the model for Doyle] would have done, and Eddie was on the set while all of this was being shot". [28] [29]

Filming locations

The French Connection was filmed at the following locations: [30] [31] [32]

  • 50th Street and First Avenue, New York City (where Doyle waits outside the restaurant)
  • 82nd Street and Fifth Avenue (near the Metropolitan Museum of Art), New York City (Weinstock's apartment)
  • 86th Street, Brooklyn, New York City (the chase scene)
  • 91 Wyckoff Avenue, Bushwick, Brooklyn (Sal and Angie's Cafe)
  • 940 2nd Avenue, Manhattan (where Charnier and Nicoli buy fruit and Popeye is watching)
  • 177 Mulberry Street, Little Italy, New York City (where Sal makes a drop)
  • Avenue De L'Amiral Ganteaume, Cassis, Bouches-du-Rhône, France (Charnier's house)
  • Château d'If, Marseille, Bouches-du-Rhône, France (where Charnier and Nicoli meet Devereaux)
  • Chez Fon Fon, Rue Du Vallon Des Auffes, Marseille (where Charnier dines)
  • Columbia Heights, Squibb Hill, Brooklyn, New York City (where Sal parks the Lincoln)
  • Le Copain, 891 First Avenue, New York City (where Charnier dines)
  • Doral Park Avenue Hotel (now 70 Park Avenue Hotel), 38th Street and Park Avenue, New York City (Devereaux's hotel)
  • Dover Street, near the Brooklyn Bridge, New York City (where Sal leaves the Lincoln)
  • Forest Avenue and Putnam Avenue, Ridgewood, Queens, New York City
  • 42nd Street Shuttle platform at Grand Central Terminal, New York City
  • Henry Hudson Parkway Route 9A at Junction 24 (car accident)
  • Marlboro Housing Project, Avenues V, W, and X off Stillwell Avenue, Brooklyn, New York City (where Popeye lives)
  • Montee Des Accoules, Marseille
  • Onderdonk Avenue, Ridgewood, Queens, New York City
  • Plage du bestouan, Cassis
  • Putnam Avenue between Fresh Pond Road and Forest Avenue, Ridgewood, Queens, New York City
  • Randalls Island, East River, New York City
  • Ratner's Restaurant, 138 Delancey Street, New York City (where Sal and Angie emerge)
  • Remsen Street, Brooklyn, New York City (where Charnier and Nicoli watch the car being unloaded)
  • Rio Piedras (now demolished), 912 Broadway, Brooklyn, New York City (where the Santa Claus chase starts)
  • Rapid Park Garage, East 38th Street near Park Avenue, New York City (where Cloudy follows Sal)
  • Ronaldo Maia Flowers, 27 East 67th Street, New York City (where Charnier gives Popeye the slip)
  • The Roosevelt Hotel, 45th Street and Madison Avenue, New York City
  • Rue des Moulins off Rue Du Panier, Old Town of Marseille (where the French policeman with the bread walks)
  • La Samaritaine at 2 Quai Du Port, Marseille
  • South Street at Market Street at the foot of Manhattan Bridge, New York City (where Doyle emerges from a bar)
  • Triborough Bridge to Randall's Island toll bridge at the east end of 125th Street, New York City
  • Wards Island, New York City (the final shootout)
  • The National Mall in Washington, D.C., near The Capitol (where Charnier and Sal meet)
  • Westbury Hotel, 15 East 69th Street, New York City (Charnier's hotel)

Reception

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film four out of four stars and ranked it one of the best films of 1971. [33] Roger Greenspun of The New York Times wrote: The French Connection "is in fact a very good new kind of movie, and that in spite of its being composed of such ancient material as cops and crooks, with thrills and chases, and lots of shoot-'em-up." [34] Variety wrote: "So many changes have been made in Robin Moore's taut, factual reprise of one of the biggest narcotics hauls in New York police history that only the skeleton remains, but producer Philip D'Antoni and screenwriter Ernest Tidyman have added enough fictional flesh to provide director William Friedkin and his overall topnotch cast with plenty of material, and they make the most of it." [35] Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune awarded the film four stars out of four and wrote: "From the moment a street-corner Santa Claus chases a drug pusher thru the Bedford-Stuyvesant section of Brooklyn, to the final shootout on deserted Ward's Island, The French Connection is a gutty, flatout thriller, far superior to any caper film of recent vintage." [36] [37]

Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times called the film "every bit as entertaining as Bullitt , a slam-bang, suspenseful, plain-spoken, sardonically funny, furiously paced melodrama. But because it has dropped the romance and starry glamor of Steve McQueen and added a strong sociological concern, The French Connection is even more interesting, thought-provoking and reverberating." [38] Gary Arnold of The Washington Post called it "an undeniably sensational movie, a fast, tense, explosively vicious little cops-and-robbers enterprise" with "a deliberately nervewracking, runaway quality ... It's a cheap thrill in the same way that a roller coaster ride is a cheap thrill. It seems altogether appropriate that the showiest sequence intercuts between a runaway train and a recklessly speeding car." [39] In his book Reverse Angle, John Simon wrote: "Friedkin has used New York locations better than anyone to day," "[t]he performances are all good", and "Owen Roizman's cinematography, grainy and grimy, is a brilliant rendering of urban blight." [40]

Pauline Kael's review in The New Yorker was generally unfavorable. She wrote: "It's not what I want not because it fails (it doesn't fail), but because of what it is. It is, I think, what we once feared mass entertainment might become: jolts for jocks. There's nothing in the movie that you enjoy thinking about afterward—nothing especially clever except the timing of the subway-door-and-umbrella sequence. Every other effect of the movie—even the climactic car-versus-runaway-elevated-train chase—is achieved by noise, speed, and brutality." [41] David Pirie of The Monthly Film Bulletin called the film "consistently exciting" and Gene Hackman "extremely convincing as Doyle, trailing his suspects with a shambling determination; but there are times when the film (or at any rate the script) seems to be applauding aspects of his character which are more repulsive than sympathetic. Whereas in The Detective or Bullitt the hero's attention was directed unmistakably towards liberal ends (crooked businessmen, corrupt local officials, etc.) Doyle spends a fair part of his time beating up sullen blacks in alleys and bars. These violent sequences are almost all presented racily and amusingly, stressing Doyle's 'lovable' toughness as he manhandles and arrests petty criminals, usually adding a quip like 'Lock them up and throw away the key.'" [42]

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 96% based on 90 reviews, with an average rating of 8.80/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Realistic, fast-paced and uncommonly smart, The French Connection is bolstered by stellar performances by Gene Hackman and Roy Scheider, not to mention William Friedkin's thrilling production." [43] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 94% based on reviews from 18 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". [44]

In 2014, Time Out listed The French Connection as the 31st-best action film of all time, according to a poll of film critics, directors, actors, and stunt actors. [45]

Some writers have called The French Connection a neo-noir film. [46]

The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa cited The French Connection as one of his favorite films. [47] [48]

Director David Fincher cited The French Connection as one of the five films that "had a Profound Impact on my Life" [49] and served as an important influence on the cinematography on his film Seven; [50] Brad Pitt cited The French Connection as a reason he participated in Seven. [51]

Director Steven Spielberg has said he studied The French Connection in preparation for his historical action thriller film Munich . [52]

Awards and nominations

AwardCategoryNominee(s)ResultRef.
Academy Awards Best Picture Philip D'Antoni Won [53]
Best Director William Friedkin Won
Best Actor Gene Hackman Won
Best Supporting Actor Roy Scheider Nominated
Best Screenplay – Based on Material from Another Medium Ernest Tidyman Won
Best Cinematography Owen Roizman Nominated
Best Film Editing Gerald B. Greenberg Won
Best Sound Christopher Newman and Theodore Soderberg Nominated
American Cinema Editors Awards Best Edited Feature Film Gerald B. GreenbergNominated
Belgrade Film Festival Best FilmPhilip D'AntoniWon
British Academy Film Awards Best Film Philip D'AntoniNominated [54]
Best Direction William FriedkinNominated
Best Actor in a Leading Role Gene Hackman (also for The Poseidon Adventure )Won
Best Film Editing Gerald B. GreenbergWon
Best Sound Christopher Newman and Theodore SoderbergNominated
David di Donatello Awards Best Foreign Film Philip D'AntoniWon
Directors Guild of America Awards Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures William FriedkinWon [55]
Edgar Allan Poe Awards Best Motion Picture Ernest TidymanWon [56]
Golden Globe Awards Best Motion Picture – Drama Won [57]
Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama Gene HackmanWon
Best Director – Motion Picture William FriedkinWon
Best Screenplay – Motion Picture Ernest TidymanNominated
Golden Reel Awards Best Sound Editing – Feature Film Won
Grammy Awards Best Instrumental Arrangement Don Ellis – "Theme from The French Connection"Won [58]
Kansas City Film Critics Circle Awards Best FilmWon [59]
Best ActorGene HackmanWon [b]
National Board of Review Awards Top Ten Films 4th Place [60]
Best Actor Gene HackmanWon
National Film Preservation Board National Film Registry Inducted [61]
National Society of Film Critics Awards Best Actor Gene HackmanNominated [62]
New York Film Critics Circle Awards Best Film Runner-up [63]
Best Actor Gene HackmanWon
Online Film & Television Association AwardsFilm Hall of Fame: ProductionsInducted [64]
Writers Guild of America Awards Best Drama – Adapted from Another Medium Ernest TidymanWon [65]

The American Film Institute recognizes The French Connection on several of its lists:

In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the tenth best-edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership. [66]

Home media releases

The French Connection has been issued in various home video formats. In 2001, it was released on VHS and DVD in box sets featuring both the film and its sequel, French Connection II .[ citation needed ] For a 2009 reissue on Blu-ray, Friedkin controversially altered the film's color timing to give it a "colder" look. [67] Cinematographer Owen Roizman, who was not consulted about the changes, called the new transfer "atrocious". [68] In 2012, a new Blu-ray transfer of the movie was released whose color timing both Friedkin and Roizman supervised; the 2009 edition's desaturated and sometimes grainy look was corrected. [69] [70]

In 2023, media publications discovered that a version of the film available on digital platforms such as Apple TV and the Criterion Channel had been altered to excise a scene that contains racial slurs. [71] [72] The decision received backlash from fans and cineasts, who compared the censorship to vandalism and called out the decision for hiding its historical context. Joseph Wade compared the cut to vandalising a piece of art. [73]

Sequels and adaptations

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ R42 cars 4572 and 4573 were chosen for the film and had no B subway rollsigns because they were normally assigned to the N subway train. Consequently, they operated during the movie with an N displayed. As of July 2009, these cars were withdrawn from service, but are preserved as part of the New York Transit Museum fleet.[ citation needed ]
  2. ↑ Tied with Walter Matthau for Kotch .

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The Organization is a 1971 DeLuxe Color American crime thriller film starring Sidney Poitier and directed by Don Medford. It was the last of the trilogy featuring the police detective Virgil Tibbs that had begun with In the Heat of the Night (1967), followed by They Call Me Mister Tibbs! (1970). In The Organization, Tibbs is called in to hunt down a gang of urban revolutionaries, suspected of a series of crimes. The screenplay was penned by James R. Webb, and the film co-stars Barbara McNair, Gerald S. O'Laughlin, Sheree North and Raul Julia.

<i>Badge 373</i> 1973 film by Howard W. Koch

Badge 373 is a 1973 American neo noir crime thriller film inspired, as was The French Connection, by the life and career of police officer Eddie Egan, here called "Eddie Ryan". The film, which has a screenplay by journalist Pete Hamill, was produced and directed by Howard W. Koch, and stars Robert Duvall as Ryan, with Verna Bloom, Henry Darrow and Eddie Egan himself as a police lieutenant.

Popeye Doyle is an American 1986 television film starring Ed O'Neill as New York City police detective Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle. It is a sequel to the feature films The French Connection (1971) and French Connection II (1975), in which Gene Hackman played Doyle; Hackman won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in The French Connection. Popeye Doyle was originally intended as a pilot episode for a proposed series under that title, but the series was not picked up.

References

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  10. ↑ "William Friedkin's Favorite Films of all Time". Fade In Magazine . 12 June 2013. Retrieved January 20, 2022– via YouTube.
  11. 1 2 Friedkin recounts his casting opinions in Making the Connection: The Untold Stories (2001). Extra feature on 2001 Five Star Collection edition of DVD release.
  12. ↑ "The Making of the French Connection". 4 February 2014.
  13. ↑ "23 Things You Never Knew About 'The French Connection'".
  14. ↑ Collins, Larry; Lapierre, Dominique (February 6, 1972). "The French Connection—In Real Life". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 20, 2020. Retrieved October 18, 2020.
  15. ↑ "Agents Seize Heroin Worth Record 22M". Daily News . New York. June 27, 1968. Archived from the original on October 24, 2020. Retrieved October 18, 2020.
  16. ↑ Bigart, Homer (June 27, 1968). "$22.4-Million in Heroin Found in Car at City Pier; Narcotics, Secreted in Auto Sent From France, Called Largest Seizure in U.S. $22.4-Million in Heroin Is Found Hidden in a Car at Pier in City". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 21, 2020. Retrieved October 18, 2020.
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  26. ↑ This account of the shooting is described in Making the Connection, supra.
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Bibliography

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