Brook trout

Last updated

Brook trout
Brook trout in water.jpg
Status TNC G5.svg
Secure  (NatureServe) [1]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Salmoniformes
Family: Salmonidae
Genus: Salvelinus
Subgenus: Baione
Species:
S. fontinalis
Binomial name
Salvelinus fontinalis
(Mitchill, 1814) 
Subspecies

S. f. agassizii(Garman, 1885)†
S. f. timagamiensisHenn & Rinckenbach, 1925

Contents

Synonyms [2]
previous scientific names
  • Salmo fontinalisMitchill, 1814Baione fontinalis(Mitchill, 1814)Salmo canadensisGriffith & Smith, 1834Salmo hudsonicusSuckley, 1861Salvelinus timagamiensisHenn & Rinckenbach, 1925

The brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) is a species of freshwater fish in the char genus Salvelinus of the salmon family Salmonidae native to Eastern North America in the United States and Canada. [3] [4] Two ecological forms of brook trout have been recognized by the US Forest Service. [3] One ecological form is short-lived potamodromous populations in Lake Superior known as coaster trout or coasters. The second ecological form is the long-living predaceous anadromous populations which are found in northern lakes and coastal rivers from Long Island to Hudson Bay, which are referred to as salters. [5] In parts of its range, it is also known as the eastern brook trout, speckled trout, brook charr, squaretail, brookie, or mud trout, among others. [6] Adult coaster brook trout are capable of reaching sizes over 2 feet in length and weigh up to 6.8 kg (15 lb), whereas adult salters average between 6 and 15 inches in length and weigh between 0.5 and 2.3 kg (1 and 5 lb). [7] The brook trout is characterized by its distinctive olive-green body with yellow and blue-rimmed red spots, white and black edged orange fins, and dorsal vermiculation. [8] The diet of the brook trout is restrictive to the season and location of the fish, but will typically consist of terrestrial and aquatic insects, fry, crustaceans, zooplankton, and worms. [3]

Throughout history, non-native brook trout have been transplanted beyond it's native borders, where it has spread across North America and much of the world. [3] These brook trout have been introduced since the 1800s by means of artificial propagation and aquaculture in hope of promoting fishery resources. [9] Through this transplantation, brook trout have been observed to affect native populations by outcompeting, preying upon, and hybridizing with many native aquatic species. [10] [11] This invasive nature via human-mediated introductory has led to their classification in the list of the top 100 globally invasive species. [12]

Since the 19th century, isolated native eastern brook trout populations have faced extirpation due to stream pollution, habitat destruction, invasive species, and waterway damming. [13] Although facing these pressures, the brook trout is not listed as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, but native population decline has been observed. [14] Some local subspecies of brook trout, such as the aurora trout, are listed as endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. [15]

Taxonomy

The scientific name of brook trout is Salvelinus fontinalis. [11] Initially, the brook trout was scientifically described as Salmo fontinalis by the naturalist Samuel Latham Mitchill in 1814. [16] The species was later moved to the char genus Salvelinus , which in North America also includes the lake trout, bull trout, Dolly Varden, and the Arctic char. [17] [16] The specific epithet "fontinalis" comes from the Latin for "of a spring or fountain", in reference to the clear, cold streams and ponds in its native habitat. [18] [3]

Subspecies

There is little recognized systematic substructure in the brook trout, but the aurora trout and silver trout subspecies have been proposed. The aurora trout, S. f. timagamiensis, is a subspecies native to two lakes in the Temagami District of Ontario, Canada. [19] The silver trout (Salvelinus agassizii or S. f. agassizii) is an extinct trout species or subspecies last seen in Dublin Pond, New Hampshire, in 1930. [20] It is considered by fisheries biologist Robert J. Behnke as a highly specialized form of brook trout. [21]

Hybrids

Tiger trout (top three), splake (bottom) TigerTrout2.jpg
Tiger trout (top three), splake (bottom)

The brook trout produces hybrids both with its congeners Salvelinus namaycush and Salvelinus alpinus , and intergeneric hybrids with Salmo trutta. [22]

The splake is an intrageneric hybrid between the brook trout and lake trout (S. namaycush). Although uncommon in nature, they are artificially propagated in substantial numbers for stocking into brook trout or lake trout habitats. [23] Although they are fertile, back-crossing in nature is behaviorally problematic and very little natural reproduction occurs. Splake grow more quickly than brook trout, become piscivorous sooner, and are more tolerant of competitors than brook trout. [24]

The tiger trout is an intergeneric hybrid between the brook trout and the Eurasian brown trout ( Salmo trutta ). Tiger trout rarely occur naturally but are sometimes artificially propagated. Such crosses are almost always reproductively sterile. They are popular with many fish-stocking programs because they can grow quickly, and may help keep coarse fish (wild non "sport" fish) populations in check due to their highly piscivorous (fish-eating) nature. [25]

The sparctic char is an intrageneric hybrid between the brook trout and the Arctic char (S. alpinus). [26]

Ecological forms

The US Forest Service has recognized two ecological forms of brook trout, salters and coasters. The forms express the same general features but vary in size, behavior, and location. [3]

Coasters

A potamodromous population of brook trout native to lacustrine regions, which migrate into tributary rivers to spawn, are called "coasters". [27] Coasters tend to be larger than most other populations of brook trout, often reaching 6 to 7 lb (2.7 to 3.2 kg) in size. [28] They also commonly live for longer periods of time and exhibit more predacious behavior than their counterparts. [29] Many coaster populations have been severely reduced by overfishing and habitat loss by the construction of hydroelectric power dams on Lake Superior tributaries. In Ontario, Michigan, and Minnesota efforts are underway to restore and recover coaster populations. [30] [31]

Salters

When Europeans first settled in Eastern North America, semi-anadromous or sea-run brook trout, commonly called "salters", ranged from southern New Jersey, north throughout the Canadian maritime provinces, and west to Hudson Bay. Salters are a short-lived form of brook trout that inhabit smaller bodies of water and exhibit less predacious behavior than coasters. [3] They may spend up to three months at sea feeding on crustaceans, fish, and marine worms in the spring. During this time they won't stray more than a few miles from the river mouth, but then return to freshwater tributaries to spawn in the late summer or autumn. While in saltwater, salters gain a more silvery color, losing much of the distinctive markings seen in freshwater. However, within two weeks of returning to freshwater, they assume typical brook trout color and markings. [28] Salters have faced threats such as habitat destruction, water pollution, and water way damming that have led to their declining population numbers across the Northeastern United States. [32]

Description

Brook trout from lake in Wyoming's Wind River Range Brookie105.jpg
Brook trout from lake in Wyoming's Wind River Range
Captive brook trout in an aquarium Salvelinus fontinalis Prague Vltava 4.jpg
Captive brook trout in an aquarium

The brook trout has a dark green to brown color, with a distinctive marbled pattern (called vermiculation) of lighter shades across the flanks and back and extending at least to the dorsal fin, and often to the tail. A distinctive sprinkling of red dots, surrounded by blue halos, occurs along the flanks. The belly and lower fins are reddish in color, the latter with white leading edges. Often, the belly, particularly of the males, becomes very red or orange when the fish are spawning. [33] [3] Typical lengths of the brook trout vary from 25 to 65 cm (9.8 to 25.6 in), and weights from 0.3 to 3 kg (0.66 to 6.61 lb). The maximum recorded length is 86 cm (34 in) and maximum weight 6.6 kg (15 lb). Brook trout can reach at least seven years of age, with reports of 15-year-old specimens observed in California habitats to which the species has been introduced. Growth rates are dependent on season, age, water and ambient air temperatures, and flow rates. In general, flow rates affect the rate of change in the relationship between temperature and growth rate. For example, in spring, growth increased with temperature at a faster rate with high flow rates than with low flow rates. [34]

Range and habitat

U.S. native and introduced ranges of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) Native Range Brook Trout.JPG
U.S. native and introduced ranges of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
Native Appalachian brook trout Native brook trout.jpg
Native Appalachian brook trout

Brook trout are native to a wide area of Eastern North America, but are increasingly confined to higher elevations southward in the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia and northwest South Carolina, Canada from the Hudson Bay basin east, the Great Lakes–Saint Lawrence system, the Canadian maritime provinces, and the upper Mississippi River drainage as far west as eastern Iowa. [36] Their southern historic native range has been drastically reduced, with fish being restricted to higher-elevation, remote streams due to habitat loss and introductions of brown and rainbow trout. As early as 1850, the brook trout's range started to extend west from its native range through introductions. The brook trout was eventually introduced into suitable habitats throughout the western U.S. during the late 19th and early 20th centuries at the behest of the American Acclimatization Society and by private, state, and federal fisheries authorities. [37] Acclimatization movements in Europe, South America, and Oceania resulted in brook trout introductions throughout Europe, [26] in Argentina, [38] and New Zealand. [39] Although not all introductions were successful, a great many established wild, self-sustaining populations of brook trout in non-native waters.

Habitat

Typical southern Appalachian brook trout habitat WhiteoakCanyonShenandoahNP.jpg
Typical southern Appalachian brook trout habitat

The brook trout inhabits large and small lakes, rivers, streams, creeks, and spring ponds in cold temperate climates with mild precipitation. [40] Clear spring water with adequate cover and moderate flow rates is indicative of strong habitability for Brook trout. They exhibit high levels of adaptability when exposed to habitat changes from environmental effects, and have been observed to exhibit more resilience to habitat change than other Salvelinus species. [40] The typical pH range of brook trout waters is 5.0 to 7.5, with pH extremes of 3.5 to 9.8 possible. [41] Water temperatures typically range from 34 to 72 °F (1 to 22 °C). Warm summer temperatures and low flow rates are stressful on brook trout populations—especially larger fish. [42]

Ecology and reproduction

Diet

Brook trout have a diverse diet that includes larval, pupal, adult forms of aquatic insects (typically caddisflies, stoneflies, mayflies, and aquatic dipterans), adult forms of terrestrial insects (typically ants, beetles, grasshoppers, and crickets) that fall into the water, crustaceans, frogs and other amphibians, molluscs, smaller fish, invertebrates, and even small aquatic mammals such as voles and sometimes other young brook trout. [40]

Reproduction

The female constructs a depression in a location in the stream bed, sometimes referred to as a "redd", where groundwater percolates upward through the gravel. One or more males approach the female, fertilizing the eggs as the female expresses them. Most spawning involve peripheral males, which directly influences the number of eggs that survive into adulthood. In general, the larger the number of peripheral males present, the more likely the eggs will be cannibalized. [43] The eggs are slightly denser than water. The female then buries the eggs in a small gravel mound where they hatch in 4 to 6 weeks. [44]

Life cycle

Following the deposition of up to 5,000 eggs in gravel beds by the female brook trout, the eggs enter an incubation period from the winter months to early spring. [45] During this incubation period, the eggs source oxygen from the stream that passes through the gravel beds and into their gel-like shells. [46] The eggs will then successively hatch into miniature fry that rely upon their yolk sac for nutrients to compensate for the lack of nutrients provided by the parental trout during the early stages of development. In the ensuing stage of their life cycle, the fry will seek cover from predatory species in rock crevices and inlets. [45] During this period of hiding, the trout will begin to mature into fingerlings by summer and start expressing parr marks to aid in camouflage. [47] At this point, most brook trout will be between 2 and 3 inches in length. [47] Finally, in succeeding months, the trout will fully mature into a trout that is approximately between 10 and 34 inches long and capable of spawning in the fall months. [33] These fully developed adult brook trout will express a vibrant olive-green back, cherry red underbelly, black accented fins, and wavy dorsal patterns. [48] A typical adult brook trout will live to the age of 3 to 4 years old, with occasional brooks living to over the age of 4. [49]

Brook trout eggs after the spawning of a female FMIB 42221 Brook trout eggs on tray, just beginning to hatch.jpeg
Brook trout eggs after the spawning of a female
Brook trout fingerling with visible parr marks Salvelinus fontinalis NBII.jpg
Brook trout fingerling with visible parr marks
Typical adult brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis - marrabbio2.jpg
Typical adult brook trout

Angling

The brook trout is a popular game fish with anglers, particularly fly fishermen. [50]

Nathan Currier lithograph of Arthur Fitzwilliam Tait's painting "Catching a Trout", 1854, depicts fishermen catching a brook trout near South Haven Church in a mill pond on Carmans River in Long Island, New York. Purportedly it illustrates an occasion when Daniel Webster, an avid angler, caught a large (about 14.5 lb (6.6 kg)) brook trout at the location in 1823 (or 1827). Tait-Catching a Trout (1854).JPG
Nathan Currier lithograph of Arthur Fitzwilliam Tait's painting "Catching a Trout", 1854, depicts fishermen catching a brook trout near South Haven Church in a mill pond on Carmans River in Long Island, New York. Purportedly it illustrates an occasion when Daniel Webster, an avid angler, caught a large (about 14.5 lb (6.6 kg)) brook trout at the location in 1823 (or 1827).
Brook trout chasing an artificial fly from American Fishes (1903) BrookTroutAmericanFishes.JPG
Brook trout chasing an artificial fly from American Fishes (1903)

Until it was displaced by introduced brown trout (1883) and rainbow trout (1875), the brook trout attracted the most attention of anglers from colonial times through the first 100 years of U.S. history. Sporting writers such as Genio Scott Fishing in American Waters (1869), Thaddeus Norris American Anglers Book (1864), Robert Barnwell Roosevelt Game Fish of North America (1864) and Charles Hallock The Fishing Tourist (1873) produced guides to the best-known brook trout waters in America. [53] As brook trout populations declined in the mid-19th century near urban areas, anglers flocked to the Adirondacks in upstate New York and the Rangeley lakes region in Maine to pursue brook trout. [53] In July 1916 on the Nipigon River in northern Ontario, an Ontario physician, John W. Cook, caught a 14.5 lb (6.6 kg) brook trout, which stands as the world record. [54] Today, many anglers practice catch-and-release tactics to preserve remaining populations. Organizations such as Trout Unlimited have been at the forefront of efforts to institute air and water quality standards sufficient to protect the brook trout. Revenues derived from the sale of fishing licenses have been used to restore many sections of creeks and streams to brook trout habitat. [55]

An angler pulls in a Brook trout using a Tenkara fly rod in Yosemite National Park. Brook trout caught on Tenkara fly rod..jpg
An angler pulls in a Brook trout using a Tenkara fly rod in Yosemite National Park.

Record

The current world angling record brook trout was caught by Dr. W. J. Cook on the Nipigon River, Ontario, in July 1915. The 31 in (79 cm) trout weighed only 14.5 lb (6.6 kg) because, at the time of weighing, it was badly decomposed after 21 days in the bush without refrigeration. [56] A 29 in (74 cm) brook trout, caught in October 2006 in Manitoba, is not eligible for record status since it was released alive. [57] This trout weighed about 15.98 lb (7.25 kg) based on the accepted formula for calculating weight by measurements, and it currently stands as the record brook trout for Manitoba. [58]

Artificial propagation and aquaculture

Juvenile brook trout grown in a rearing tank by the fish and wildlife services Juvenile Brook Trout.jpg
Juvenile brook trout grown in a rearing tank by the fish and wildlife services

Since the 1800s, brook trout populations have been grown by artificial propagation and aquaculture. [9] Artificial propagation in fish is the process by which eggs are inseminated, hatched, and grown in a controlled environment that minimizes unfavorable environmental pressures. The fish are then released into the wild when they have reached the appropriate age and size. [59] [60] This process was introduced as a way to counteract the effects of overfishing and aquatic habitat loss and to reinforce brook trout populations across the Northeastern United States. [61] Hatchery rearing was also introduced to raise brook trout in large numbers for food production and sale for human consumption. [62]

The process of artificial propagation in brook trout begins by decreasing the temperature of the adult trout's propagation tank to mimic the seasonal changes associated with brook trout spawning season. The acclimated trout are then collected, and the eggs are gently massaged out of the female trout into a collection vessel, and then inseminated with the milt of a male brook. Next, the inseminated eggs are strained of the milt and transferred to a jar for several weeks to develop into viable embryos. Once the eggs have begun to hatch, the fry are transported into rearing tanks where they will grow and develop before their release into the wild. [63] Their rearing tanks typically consist of large circular tanks with a constant water flow going through them to allow a current to circulate through the tank and keep it clean (some more elaborate systems operate on a re-circulation system where the water is filtered and reused). The fish are typically fed a pelleted food consisting of 40–50% protein and 15% fat made from fish oil, animal protein, plant protein and vitamins and minerals. [64] [65] Finally, once the fish have reached a viable size, around 2 inches in length, they are released into the wild. [63]

This means of brook trout aquaculture has sparked controversy due to potential decrease in the fishes fitness, adaptability, and environmental resilience, effectively posing a threat to native brook trout populations. [61] Arguments against artificial propagation of brook trout claim that it can cause a degradation of the overall genetic pool due to the possibility of inbreeding among individuals. This lack of genetic variation could lead to certain populations of brook trout to become extirpated from their deficiency in adaptability. [9] [61]

Conservation status

As early as the late 19th century, native brook trout in North America became extirpated from many watercourses as land development, forest clear-cutting, and industrialization took hold. [66] Streams and creeks that were polluted, dammed, or silted up often became too warm to hold native brook trout, and were colonized by transplanted smallmouth bass and perch or other introduced salmonids such as brown and rainbow trout. The brown trout, a species not native to North America, has replaced the brook trout in much of the brook trout's native water. If already stressed by overharvesting or by temperature, brook trout populations are very susceptible to damage by the introduction of exogenous species. Many lacustrine populations of brook trout have been extirpated by the introduction of other species, particularly percids, but sometimes other spiny-rayed fishes. [67]

In addition to chemical pollution and algae growth caused by runoff containing chemicals and fertilizers, air pollution has also been a significant factor in the disappearance of brook trout from their native habitats. In the U.S., acid rain caused by air pollution has resulted in pH levels too low to sustain brook trout in all but the highest headwaters of some Appalachian streams and creeks. [68] Brook trout populations across large parts of eastern Canada have been similarly challenged; a subspecies known as the aurora trout was extirpated from the wild by the effects of acid rain. [69]

Organizations such as Trout Unlimited and Trout Unlimited Canada are partnering with other organizations such as the Southern Appalachian Brook Trout Foundation, the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture, and state, provincial, and federal agencies to undertake projects that restore native brook trout habitat and populations. [14] [30] [70] [71]

As an invasive species

Although brook trout populations are under stress in their native range, they are considered an invasive species where they have been introduced outside their historic native range. [72] [73] [74] In the northern Rocky Mountains, non-native brook trout are considered a significant contributor to the decline or extirpation of native cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki) in headwater streams. [75] [76] Invasive brook trout populations may provoke territorial competition with the native cutthroat trout that can impede the recovery efforts of cutthroat trout by environmental agencies. [76] Non-native brook trout populations have been subject to eradication programs in efforts to preserve native species. [77] [78] In Yellowstone National Park, anglers may take an unlimited number of non-native brook trout in some watersheds. In the Lamar River watershed, a mandatory kill regulation for any brook trout caught is in effect. [79] In Europe, introduced brook trout, once established, have had negative impacts on growth rates of native brown trout (S. trutta). [26]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trout</span> Freshwater fish from subfamily Salmoninae

Trout is a generic common name for numerous species of carnivorous freshwater ray-finned fishes belonging to the genera Oncorhynchus, Salmo and Salvelinus, all of which are members of the subfamily Salmoninae in the family Salmonidae. The word trout is also used for some similar-shaped but non-salmonid fish, such as the spotted seatrout/speckled trout.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake trout</span> Species of fish in northern North America

The lake trout is a freshwater char living mainly in lakes in northern North America. Other names for it include mackinaw, namaycush,lake char (or charr), touladi, togue, and grey trout. In Lake Superior, it can also be variously known as siscowet, paperbelly and lean. The lake trout is prized both as a game fish and as a food fish. Those caught with dark coloration may be called mud hens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown trout</span> Species of fish

The brown trout is a species of salmonid ray-finned fish and the most widely distributed species of the genus Salmo, endemic to most of Europe, West Asia and parts of North Africa, and has been widely introduced globally as a game fish, even becoming one of the world's worst invasive species outside of its native range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rainbow trout</span> Fresh-water species of fish

The rainbow trout is a species of trout native to cold-water tributaries of the Pacific Ocean in Asia and North America. The steelhead is an anadromous (sea-run) form of the coastal rainbow trout(O. m. irideus) or Columbia River redband trout (O. m. gairdneri) that usually returns to freshwater to spawn after living two to three years in the ocean. Freshwater forms that have been introduced into the Great Lakes and migrate into tributaries to spawn are also called steelhead.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cutthroat trout</span> Species of fish

The cutthroat trout(Oncorhynchus clarkii) is a fish species of the family Salmonidae native to cold-water tributaries of the Pacific Ocean, Rocky Mountains, and Great Basin in North America. As a member of the genus Oncorhynchus, it is one of the Pacific trout, a group that includes the widely distributed rainbow trout. Cutthroat trout are popular gamefish, especially among anglers who enjoy fly fishing. The common name "cutthroat" refers to the distinctive red coloration on the underside of the lower jaw. The specific name clarkii was given to honor explorer William Clark, coleader of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silver trout</span> Extinct species of fish

The silver trout is an extinct char species or subspecies that inhabited a few waters in New Hampshire in the United States prior to 1939, when a biological survey conducted on the Connecticut watershed by the New Hampshire Fish and Game Department found none.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bitterroot River</span> River in Montana, United States

The Bitterroot River is a northward flowing 84-mile (135 km) river running through the Bitterroot Valley, from the confluence of its West and East forks near Conner in southern Ravalli County to its confluence with the Clark Fork River near Missoula in Missoula County, in western Montana. The Clark Fork River is a tributary to the Columbia River and ultimately, the Pacific Ocean. The Bitterroot River is a Blue Ribbon trout fishery with a healthy population of native westslope cutthroat trout and bull trout. It is the third most fly fished river in Montana behind the Madison and Big Horn Rivers.

The aurora trout, Salvelinus fontinalis timagamiensis, is a variant or subspecies of the brook trout native to two lakes in the Temagami District of Ontario, Canada. The existence of the fish was brought to the attention of the angling world by four American anglers who were taken by Archie King of Latchford, Ontario, into Ontario's Lady Evelyn River system in 1923. Recognizing the fish as different or unique, the anglers took a specimen back to the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh, in the United States, where Dr. Arthur W. Henn was asked to identify the fish. He wrote about the fish in 1925 wherein he and Rinckenbach identified it as a distinct species, Salvelinus timagamiensis, but since a seminal re-examination of the material by Sale in 1967, taxonomists now agree the fish is, in a fact, at most a subspecies of the brook trout, named Salvelinus fontinalis timagamiensis. Genetic data has not yet supported its taxonomic distinction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lahontan cutthroat trout</span> Subspecies of fish

Lahontan cutthroat trout is the largest subspecies of cutthroat trout, and the state fish of Nevada. It is one of three subspecies of cutthroat trout that are listed as federally threatened.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellowstone cutthroat trout</span> Subspecies of fish

The Yellowstone cutthroat trout is a subspecies of the cutthroat trout. It is a freshwater fish in the salmon family. Native only to a few U.S. states, their original range was upstream of Shoshone Falls on the Snake River and tributaries in Wyoming, also across the Continental Divide in Yellowstone Lake and in the Yellowstone River as well as its tributaries downstream to the Tongue River in Montana. The species is also found in Idaho, Utah and Nevada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Splake</span> Species of fish

The splake or slake is a hybrid of two fish species resulting from the crossing of a male brook trout and a female lake trout. The name itself is a portmanteau of speckled trout and lake trout, and may have been used to describe such hybrids as early as the 1880s. Hybrids of the male lake trout with the female brook trout have also been produced, but are not as successful.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freshwater fish</span> Fish that mostly live in freshwater

Freshwater fish are those that spend some or all of their lives in fresh water, such as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 1.05%. These environments differ from marine conditions in many ways, especially the difference in levels of salinity. To survive fresh water, the fish need a range of physiological adaptations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Westslope cutthroat trout</span> Subspecies of fish

The westslope cutthroat trout, also known as the black-spotted trout, common cutthroat trout and red-throated trout is a subspecies of the cutthroat trout and is a freshwater fish in the salmon family of order Salmoniformes. The cutthroat is the Montana state fish. This subspecies is a species of concern in its Montana and British Columbia ranges and is considered threatened in its native range in Alberta.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tiger trout</span> Hybrid fish

The tiger trout is a sterile, intergeneric hybrid of the brown trout and the brook trout. Pronounced vermiculations in the fish's patterning gave rise to its name, evoking the stripes of a tiger. Tiger trout are a rare anomaly in the wild, as the parent species are relatively unrelated, being members of different genera and possessing mismatched numbers of chromosomes. However, specialized hatchery rearing techniques are able to produce tiger trout reliably enough to meet the demands of stocking programs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fishing in Wyoming</span>

A game fish is any species of fish pursued for sport by recreationalists (anglers). The capture of game fish is usually tightly regulated. In comparison, nongame fish are all fish not considered game fish. Game fish may be eaten after being caught, though increasingly anglers are practicing catch-and-release tactics to improve fish populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Angling in Yellowstone National Park</span>

Angling in Yellowstone National Park is a major reason many visitors come to the park each year and since it was created in 1872, the park has drawn anglers from around the world to fish its waters. In 2006, over 50,000 park fishing permits were issued to visitors. The park contains hundreds of miles of accessible, high-quality trout rivers containing wild trout populations—over 200 creeks, streams and rivers are fishable. There are 45 fishable lakes and several large lakes are easily accessible to visitors. Additionally, the park's remote sections provide anglers ample opportunity to visit rivers, streams, creeks and lakes that receive little angling pressure. With the exception of one specially designated drainage, all the park's waters are restricted to artificial lures and fly fishing. The Madison, Firehole and a section of the Gibbon rivers are restricted to fly fishing only.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allegheny National Fish Hatchery</span>

The Allegheny National Fish Hatchery was established by Congress in 1959 to produce rainbow, brook, and brown trout for northwestern Pennsylvania streams. Construction began in the late 1960s. Fish production began on site in 1974.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taylor Creek (Lake Tahoe)</span> River in California, United States

Taylor Creek is a 2.2-mile-long (3.5 km) northward-flowing stream originating in the Fallen Leaf Lake and culminating at Baldwin Beach at Lake Tahoe, about 1 mile (1.6 km) west of Camp Richardson in El Dorado County, California.

Independence Creek is a 11.2-mile-long (18.0 km) northeast-flowing creek that is tributary to the Little Truckee River, north of Lake Tahoe. It drains the Independence Basin on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada, which includes Independence Lake, ultimately flowing through Sierra County to the Little Truckee River in Nevada County, thence to the Truckee River and ultimately, Pyramid Lake.

References

  1. ↑ , NatureServe Explorer
  2. ↑ "Synonyms of Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill, 1814)". Fishbase. Retrieved 2014-02-23.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Adams, Pauline; James, Christopher; Speas, Clay (March 2008). "Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) Species and Conservation Assessment" (PDF). US Forest Service.
  4. ↑ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  5. ↑ "History". Sea-Run Brook Trout Coalition. Sea Run Brook Trout Coalition. Retrieved 19 February 2024.
  6. ↑ Common names of Salvelinus fontinalis FishBase, retrieved 22 May 2015
  7. ↑ "Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service". www.fws.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  8. ↑ "Brook Trout | Species Breakdown". HookedinFishing. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  9. 1 2 3 Kazyak, David C.; Rash, Jacob; Lubinski, Barbara A.; King, Tim L. (2018-02-01). "Assessing the impact of stocking northern-origin hatchery brook trout on the genetics of wild populations in North Carolina". Conservation Genetics. 19 (1): 207–219. Bibcode:2018ConG...19..207K. doi:10.1007/s10592-017-1037-4. ISSN   1572-9737.
  10. ↑ Harbicht, Andrew B; Alshamlih, Mohammed; Wilson, Chris C; Dylan J, Fraser (May 2014). "Anthropogenic and habitat correlates of hybridization between hatchery and wild brook trout". Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 71 (5): 688–697. doi:10.1139/cjfas-2013-0460.
  11. 1 2 Day, Casey C; Landguth, Erin L; Bearlin, Andrew; Zachary A, Holden; Whiteley, Andrew R (May 2018). "Using simulation modeling to inform management of invasive species: A case study of eastern brook trout suppression and eradication". Biological Conservation. 221: 10–22. Bibcode:2018BCons.221...10D. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.01.017.
  12. ↑ "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species: A Selection From The Global Invasive Species Database", Encyclopedia of Biological Invasions, University of California Press, 2019-12-31, pp. 715–716, doi:10.1525/9780520948433-159, ISBN   978-0-520-94843-3 , retrieved 2024-03-22
  13. ↑ "Eastern Brook Trout: Status and Threats (2006) — EBTJV". easternbrooktrout.org. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  14. 1 2 "Conserving the Eastern Brook Trout: An Overview of Status, Threats, and Trends" (PDF). dep.nj.gov. December 2005. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  15. ↑ Government of Canada, Public Services and Procurement Canada. "Information archivée dans le Web" (PDF). publications.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  16. 1 2 Skip (2020-12-17). "Introducing The First Fish: Bob Mallard on Salmo fontinalis; brook trout". Fly Life Magazine. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  17. ↑ Whiteley, Andrew R; Penaluna E, Brooke; Taylor, Eric B; Weiss, Steve; Abadia-Cardoso, Alicia; Gomez-Uchida, Daniel; Koizumi, Itsuro; Trotter, Patrick (2019). "Trout and Char: Taxonomy, Systematics, and Phylogeography". Research Gate.
  18. ↑ DCNR (2018-08-24). "Wild About Native Trout!". Good Natured. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  19. ↑ Aurora trout Recovery Team (ATRT) (July 2006). "Recovery Strategy for the Aurora trout (Salvelinus fontinalis timagamiensis) in Canada" (PDF). Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-04. Retrieved 2014-01-06.
  20. ↑ World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1996). "Salvelinus agassizii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 1996: e.T19873A9089084. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T19873A9089084.en . Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  21. ↑ Behnke, Robert J. (2002). "Brook Trout Salvelinus fontinalis". Trout and Salmon of North America. Tomelleri, Joseph R. (illustrator). The Free Press. pp. 275–280. ISBN   0-7432-2220-2.
  22. ↑ Dunham, Rex (2004). Aquaculture and Fisheries Biotechnology: Genetic Approaches. Wallingford: CABI Publishing. p. 42. ISBN   0851999530.
  23. ↑ "Splake". Maine Department of Inland Fisheries. Retrieved 2013-01-06.
  24. ↑ "NAS - Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Salvelinus fontinalis x namaycush". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2014-01-06.
  25. ↑ "Tiger trout". UtahFishingInfo.com - Utah Fishing Information. Retrieved 2014-05-28.
  26. 1 2 3 Jannson, K. (2013). "NOBANIS – Invasive Alien Species Fact Sheet Salvelinus fontinalis" (PDF). Online Database of the European Network on Invasive Alien Species – NOBANIS www.nobanis.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-11. Retrieved 2013-12-26.
  27. ↑ "A Completion Report on the Lake Superior Coaster Brook Trout Initiative" (PDF). Great Lakes Fishery Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-27. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  28. 1 2 Karas, Nick (2002). "Salters and Coasters". Brook Trout: A Thorough Look at North America's Great Native Trout- Its History, Biology, and Angling Possibilities (Revised ed.). NY: Lyons Press. pp. 100–119. ISBN   978-1-58574-733-7.
  29. ↑ Adams, Pauline; James, Christopher; Speas, Clay (March 2008). "Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) Species and Conservation Assessment" (PDF). US Forest Service.
  30. 1 2 "Coaster Brook Trout". Trout Unlimited Canada. Archived from the original on 2014-05-29. Retrieved 2014-05-28.
  31. ↑ Mamoozadeh, N.; Goldsworthy, C.; Miller, L.; Peterson, M.; Meek, M. (August 2023). "Sources of coaster brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) revealed by genomic analysis of brook trout populations along Minnesota's shoreline with Lake Superior". Journal of Great Lakes Research. 49 (4): 901–917. Bibcode:2023JGLR...49..901M. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2023.06.005.
  32. ↑ Luell, Steven (August 21, 2020). "Movements of coastal brook trout after dam removals". The Habitat Section of the American Fisheries Society.
  33. 1 2 "Brook Trout | Species Breakdown". HookedinFishing. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  34. ↑ Xu, Calin; Letcher, Benjamin H.; Nislow, Keith H. (Nov 2010). "Context-specific influence of water temperature on brook trout growth rates in the field". Freshwater Biology. 55 (11): 2253–2264. Bibcode:2010FrBio..55.2253X. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2010.02430.x.
  35. ↑ "NAS - Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Salvelinus fontinalis". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2014-01-06.
  36. ↑ Behnke, Robert J. (2007). "Brook Trout". About Trout-The Best of Robert J. Behnke from Trout Magazine. Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press. pp. 85–90. ISBN   978-1-59921-203-6.
  37. ↑ Karas, Nick (2002). "Expansion of the Brook Trout's Range Within the United States". Brook Trout: A Thorough Look at North America's Great Native Trout- Its History, Biology, and Angling Possibilities (Revised ed.). NY: Lyons Press. pp. 331–339. ISBN   978-1-58574-733-7.
  38. ↑ "Salvelinus fontinalis Aurora trout". animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu. Retrieved 2013-12-26.
  39. ↑ "Brook Char or Brook Trout". fishingmag.co.nz. Retrieved 2013-12-26.
  40. 1 2 3 Raleigh, Robert F (September 1982). Habitat Suitability Index Models: Brook Trout. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Services.
  41. ↑ "Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)". Chebucto.ns.ca. Archived from the original on 2013-12-14. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
  42. ↑ Xu, C.L.; Letcher, B. H.; Nislow, K. H. (June 2010). "Size-dependent survival of brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis in summer: effects of water temperature and stream flow". Journal of Fish Biology. 76 (10): 2342–2369. Bibcode:2010JFBio..76.2342X. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02619.x. PMID   20557596.
  43. ↑ Blanchfield, Paul; Ridgway, Mark S. (Mar 1999). "The cost of peripheral males in a brook trout mating system". Animal Behaviour. 57 (3): 537–544. doi:10.1006/anbe.1998.1014. PMID   10196043. S2CID   25654976.
  44. ↑ "Trout in the Classroom". www.dnr.sc.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-24.
  45. 1 2 "Biology & Management" (PDF). Maine.gov.
  46. ↑ Harter, Till (February 12, 2021). "Warm fish eggs gasp for oxygen". journals.biologists.com. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  47. 1 2 "Brook Trout". PENNSYLVANIA TROUT IN THE CLASSROOM. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  48. ↑ Letcher, Benjamin H.; Schueller, Paul; Bassar, Ronald D.; Nislow, Keith H.; Coombs, Jason A.; Sakrejda, Krzysztof; Morrissey, Michael; Sigourney, Douglas B.; Whiteley, Andrew R.; O'Donnell, Matthew J.; Dubreuil, Todd L. (2015). "Robust estimates of environmental effects on population vital rates: an integrated capture—recapture model of seasonal brook trout growth, survival and movement in a stream network". Journal of Animal Ecology. 84 (2): 337–352. Bibcode:2015JAnEc..84..337L. doi:10.1111/1365-2656.12308. ISSN   0021-8790. JSTOR   24698503.
  49. ↑ Letcher, Benjamin H.; Schueller, Paul; Bassar, Ronald D.; Nislow, Keith H.; Coombs, Jason A.; Sakrejda, Krzysztof; Morrissey, Michael; Sigourney, Douglas B.; Whiteley, Andrew R.; O'Donnell, Matthew J.; Dubreuil, Todd L. (March 2015). Childs, Dylan (ed.). "Robust estimates of environmental effects on population vital rates: an integrated capture–recapture model of seasonal brook trout growth, survival and movement in a stream network". Journal of Animal Ecology. 84 (2): 337–352. Bibcode:2015JAnEc..84..337L. doi:10.1111/1365-2656.12308. ISSN   0021-8790. PMID   25327608.
  50. ↑ O'Hara, David L.; Dickerson, Matthew T. (2014). Downstream: Reflections on Brook Trout, Fly Fishing, and the Waters of Appalachia. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books. ISBN   978-1-62564-727-6.
  51. ↑ Karas, Nick (2002). "Daniel Webster and his "Devil Trout"". Brook Trout: A Thorough Look at North America's Great Native Trout- Its History, Biology, and Angling Possibilities (Revised ed.). NY: Lyons Press. pp. 3–14. ISBN   978-1-58574-733-7.
  52. ↑ Gill, Theodore; Goode, G. Brown (1903). American Fishes-A Popular Treatise upon the Game and Food Fishes of North America. Boston: L. C. Page and Company.
  53. 1 2 Schullery, Paul (1996). "The Fly-fishing Exploration". American Fly Fishing-A History. Norwalk, CT: The Easton Press. pp. 43–57.
  54. ↑ Karas, Nick (2002). "Dr. John William Cook and his "Devil Trout"". Brook Trout: A Thorough Look at North America's Great Native Trout- Its History, Biology, and Angling Possibilities (Revised ed.). NY: Lyons Press. pp. 15–26. ISBN   978-1-58574-733-7.
  55. ↑ Moeller, Scott (August 2009). "Species Profile-Closeup on the Brook Trout". Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. Retrieved 2014-05-30.
  56. ↑ "Dr. JW Cook's World Record Brook Trout Was Caught in 1915". Brooktrout.ca. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
  57. ↑ "Browny. The Fish, Fish'n Line Magazine". Anglingmasters.com. Archived from the original on 2013-01-16. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
  58. ↑ "Brook trout records". troutster.com.
  59. ↑ "The artificial propagation of warm-water finfishes A manual for extension". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2024-03-24.
  60. ↑ Shelbourne, J. E. (1964-01-01), Russell, F. S. (ed.), "The Artificial Propagation of Marine Fish", Advances in Marine Biology, vol. 2, Academic Press, pp. 1–83, retrieved 2024-03-24
  61. 1 2 3 White, Shannon L.; Miller, William L.; Dowell, Stephanie A.; Bartron, Meredith L.; Wagner, Tyler (January 1960). "Limited hatchery introgression into wild brook trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis ) populations despite reoccurring stocking". Evolutionary Applications. 11 (9): 1567–1581. doi:10.1111/eva.12646. ISSN   1752-4571. PMC   6183464 . PMID   30344628.
  62. ↑ "Trout Profile". Agricultural Marketing Resource Center. March 2012. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2014-05-28.
  63. 1 2 "Pots of Gold: Hand-Spawning Native Trout · Tennessee Aquarium". Tennessee Aquarium. 2021-11-10. Retrieved 2024-03-24.
  64. ↑ "What's in fish feed? - Skretting Australia". Skretting. Archived from the original on 2018-11-26. Retrieved 2018-11-26.
  65. ↑ "Floating Feed — Corey Aquafeeds". Corey Aquafeeds. Retrieved 2018-11-26.
  66. ↑ "Eastern Brook Trout: Status and Threats". Trout Unlimited for the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture. Retrieved 2013-12-29.
  67. ↑ "Bonneville cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii utah) - Species Profile". Nonindigenous Aquatic Species. 2012-01-30. Retrieved 2022-03-17.
  68. ↑ Camuto, Christopher (1990). "Air and Rain". A Fly Fisherman's Blue Ridge. New York: Henry Holt & Company. pp. 85–87. ISBN   0-8050-1466-7.
  69. ↑ "Royal Ontario Museum's page on the Aurora trout". Rom.on.ca. Retrieved 2013-07-10.
  70. ↑ "Protect, Restore and Enhance" . Retrieved 2013-12-29.
  71. ↑ "The Southern Appalachian Brook Trout Foundation". Archived from the original on 2013-12-27. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  72. ↑ Jason B. Dunham; Susan B. Adams; Robert E. Schroeter & Douglas C. Novinger (2002). "Alien invasions in aquatic ecosystems: Toward an understanding of brook trout invasions and potential impacts on inland cutthroat trout in western North America" (PDF). Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 12 (4): 373–391. doi:10.1023/A:1025338203702. S2CID   8442159.
  73. ↑ "Salvelinus fontinalis (fish)". IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). Retrieved 2014-01-06.
  74. ↑ Peterson, Lesley (Spring 2013). "Loved in Eastern Canada, Loathed in the Rockies: The Two Sides of Brook Trout" (PDF). Currents. 19 (2). Trout Unlimited Canada: 1–3. Retrieved 2013-01-06.
  75. ↑ Shepard, Bradley B. (2009). "SWG Final Report: Factors that influence invasion of nonnative brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)and their displacement of native cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii) in the Northern Rocky Mountains". Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife & Parks. Retrieved 2014-04-13.
  76. 1 2 Peterson, Douglas P.; Fausch, Kurt D.; White, Gary C. (June 2004). "Population Ecology of an Invasion: Effects of Brook Trout on Native Cutthroat Trout". Ecological Applications. 14 (3): 754–772. Bibcode:2004EcoAp..14..754P. doi:10.1890/02-5395. ISSN   1051-0761.
  77. ↑ Frank, Charles W. (2014-04-02). "Under the Radar – The Trout Eradication Program Save the Fish". eTerritorial Dispatch Yuba County, Sutter County, Nevada County and Colusa County. Retrieved 2014-04-13.
  78. ↑ Carmona-Catot, Gerard; Moyle, Peter B.; Aparicio, Enric; Crain, Patrick K.; Thompson, Lisa C.; García-Berthou, Emili (2010-11-01). "Brook Trout Removal as a Conservation Tool to Restore Eagle Lake Rainbow Trout" (PDF). North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 30 (5). American Fisheries Society: 1315–1323. Bibcode:2010NAJFM..30.1315C. doi:10.1577/m10-077.1. hdl: 10256/7472 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04.
  79. ↑ "2021 Yellowstone National Park Fishing Regulations" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2014-04-13.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.