Cable-stayed bridge

Last updated • 17 min readFrom Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Cable-stayed bridge
"Russian bridge" in Vladivostok.jpg
The Russky Bridge in Vladivostok has a central span of 1,104 metres (3,622 ft), the world's longest cable-stayed bridge span as of 2024.
Ancestor Suspension bridge
Related Extradosed bridge
Descendant Side-spar cable-stayed bridge, Self-anchored suspension bridge, cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge
Carries Pedestrians, bicycles, automobiles, trucks, light rail
Span rangeMedium to Long
Material Steel rope, post-tensioned concrete box girders, steel or concrete pylons
MovableNo[ citation needed ]
Design effortmedium
Falsework requiredNormally none
Oresund Bridge from Malmo to Copenhagen in Sweden and Denmark Oresundsbron och tanker.jpg
Øresund Bridge from Malmö to Copenhagen in Sweden and Denmark

A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers (or pylons), from which cables support the bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables or stays, which run directly from the tower to the deck, normally forming a fan-like pattern or a series of parallel lines. This is in contrast to the modern suspension bridge, where the cables supporting the deck are suspended vertically from the main cable, anchored at both ends of the bridge and running between the towers. The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans longer than cantilever bridges and shorter than suspension bridges. This is the range within which cantilever bridges would rapidly grow heavier, and suspension bridge cabling would be more costly.

Contents

Cable-stayed bridges were being designed and constructed by the late 16th century, [1] and the form found wide use in the late 19th century. Early examples, including the Brooklyn Bridge, often combined features from both the cable-stayed and suspension designs. Cable-stayed designs fell from favor in the early 20th century as larger gaps were bridged using pure suspension designs, and shorter ones using various systems built of reinforced concrete. It returned to prominence in the later 20th century when the combination of new materials, larger construction machinery, and the need to replace older bridges all lowered the relative price of these designs. [2]

History

Chain-stayed bridge by the Renaissance polymath Fausto Veranzio, from 1595/1616. Prior to industrial manufacture of heavy wire rope (steel cable), suspended or stayed bridges were firstly constructed with linked rods (chain). Pons ferrevs by Faust Vrancic.jpg
Chain-stayed bridge by the Renaissance polymath Fausto Veranzio, from 1595/1616. Prior to industrial manufacture of heavy wire rope (steel cable), suspended or stayed bridges were firstly constructed with linked rods (chain).

Cable-stayed bridges date back to 1595, where designs were found in Machinae Novae, a book by Croatian-Venetian inventor Fausto Veranzio. Many early suspension bridges were cable-stayed construction, including the 1817 footbridge Dryburgh Abbey Bridge, James Dredge's patented Victoria Bridge, Bath (1836), and the later Albert Bridge (1872) and Brooklyn Bridge (1883). Their designers found that the combination of technologies created a stiffer bridge. John A. Roebling took particular advantage of this to limit deformations due to railway loads in the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge.

The earliest known surviving example of a true cable-stayed bridge in the United States is E.E. Runyon's largely intact steel or iron Bluff Dale Suspension bridge with wooden stringers and decking in Bluff Dale, Texas (1890), or his weeks earlier but ruined Barton Creek Bridge between Huckabay, Texas and Gordon, Texas (1889 or 1890). [3] [4] In the twentieth century, early examples of cable-stayed bridges included A. Gisclard's unusual Cassagnes bridge (1899), [5] in which the horizontal part of the cable forces is balanced by a separate horizontal tie cable, preventing significant compression in the deck, and G. Leinekugel le Coq's bridge [6] at Lézardrieux in Brittany (1924). Eduardo Torroja designed a cable-stayed aqueduct [7] at Tempul in 1926. [8] Albert Caquot's 1952 concrete-decked cable-stayed bridge [9] over the Donzère-Mondragon canal at Pierrelatte is one of the first of the modern type, but had little influence on later development. [8] The steel-decked Strömsund Bridge designed by Franz Dischinger (1955) is, therefore, more often cited as the first modern cable-stayed bridge.

Abdoun Bridge, Amman, Jordan, example of an extradosed bridge Abdoun Bridge (7).jpg
Abdoun Bridge, Amman, Jordan, example of an extradosed bridge

Other key pioneers included Fabrizio de Miranda, Riccardo Morandi, and Fritz Leonhardt. Early bridges from this period used very few stay cables, as in the Theodor Heuss Bridge (1958). However, this involves substantial erection costs, and more modern structures tend to use many more cables to ensure greater economy.

Comparison with suspension bridge

Ada Bridge at dusk in Belgrade (Serbia) Ada Bridge 2012.jpg
Ada Bridge at dusk in Belgrade (Serbia)
Prins Clausbrug across the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal in Utrecht Prins Clausbrug vanuit NO bekeken.JPG
Prins Clausbrug across the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal in Utrecht

Cable-stayed bridges may appear to be similar to suspension bridges, but they are quite different in principle and construction. In suspension bridges, large main cables (normally two) hang between the towers and are anchored at each end to the ground. This can be difficult to implement when ground conditions are poor. The main cables, which are free to move on bearings in the towers, bear the load of the bridge deck. Before the deck is installed, the cables are under tension from their own weight. Along the main cables smaller cables or rods connect to the bridge deck, which is lifted in sections. As this is done, the tension in the cables increases, as it does with the live load of traffic crossing the bridge. The tension on the main cables is transferred to the ground at the anchorages and by downwards compression on the towers.

In cable-stayed bridges, the towers are the primary load-bearing structures that transmit the bridge loads to the ground. A cantilever approach is often used to support the bridge deck near the towers, but lengths further from them are supported by cables running directly to the towers. That has the disadvantage, unlike for the suspension bridge, that the cables pull to the sides as opposed to directly up, which requires the bridge deck to be stronger to resist the resulting horizontal compression loads, but it has the advantage of not requiring firm anchorages to resist the horizontal pull of the main cables of the suspension bridge. By design, all static horizontal forces of the cable-stayed bridge are balanced so that the supporting towers do not tend to tilt or slide and so must only resist horizontal forces from the live loads.

The following are key advantages of the cable-stayed form:

Designs

There are four major classes of rigging on cable-stayed bridges: mono, harp, fan, and star. [10]

All the seven column arrangements of a cable-stayed bridge Cable-stayed bridge tower arrangements.png
All the seven column arrangements of a cable-stayed bridge

There are also seven main arrangements for support columns: single, double, portal, A-shaped, H-shaped, inverted Y and M-shaped. The last three are hybrid arrangements that combine two arrangements into one. [10]

Depending on the design, the columns may be vertical or angled or curved relative to the bridge deck.

Variations

Side-spar cable-stayed bridge

Puente de la Unidad, joining San Pedro Garza Garcia and Monterrey, a Cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge Puente atirantado.PNG
Puente de la Unidad, joining San Pedro Garza García and Monterrey, a Cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge

A side-spar cable-stayed bridge uses a central tower supported only on one side. This design allows the construction of a curved bridge.

Cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge

Far more radical in its structure, the Puente del Alamillo (1992) uses a single cantilever spar on one side of the span, with cables on one side only to support the bridge deck. Unlike other cable-stayed types, this bridge exerts considerable overturning force upon its foundation and the spar must resist the bending caused by the cables, as the cable forces are not balanced by opposing cables. The spar of this particular bridge forms the gnomon of a large garden sundial. Related bridges by the architect Santiago Calatrava include the Puente de la Mujer (2001), Sundial Bridge (2004), Chords Bridge (2008), and Assut de l'Or Bridge (2008).

Multiple-span cable-stayed bridge

Zhivopisny Bridge in Moscow is a multiple-span design. Zhivopisnyi most 2012.jpg
Zhivopisny Bridge in Moscow is a multiple-span design.

Cable-stayed bridges with more than three spans involve significantly more challenging designs than do 2-span or 3-span structures.

In a 2-span or 3-span cable-stayed bridge, the loads from the main spans are normally anchored back near the end abutments by stays in the end spans. For more spans, this is not the case and the bridge structure is less stiff overall. This can create difficulties in both the design of the deck and the pylons. Examples of multiple-span structures in which this is the case include Ting Kau Bridge, where additional 'cross-bracing' stays are used to stabilise the pylons; Millau Viaduct and Mezcala Bridge, where twin-legged towers are used; and General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge, where very stiff multi-legged frame towers were adopted. A similar situation with a suspension bridge is found at both the Great Seto Bridge and San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge where additional anchorage piers are required after every set of three suspension spans – this solution can also be adapted for cable-stayed bridges. [13]

Extradosed bridge

The Twinkle-Kisogawa is an extradosed design, with long gaps between the cable supported sections. Twinkle Kisogawa bridge02.jpg
The Twinkle-Kisogawa is an extradosed design, with long gaps between the cable supported sections.

An extradosed bridge is a cable-stayed bridge with a more substantial bridge deck that, being stiffer and stronger, allows the cables to be omitted close to the tower and for the towers to be lower in proportion to the span. The first extradosed bridges were the Ganter Bridge and Sunniberg Bridge in Switzerland. The first extradosed bridge in the United States, the Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge was built to carry I-95 across the Quinnipiac River in New Haven, Connecticut, opening in June 2012.

Cable-stayed cradle-system bridge

A cradle system carries the strands within the stays from the bridge deck to bridge deck, as a continuous element, eliminating anchorages in the pylons. Each epoxy-coated steel strand is carried inside the cradle in a one-inch (2.54 cm) steel tube. Each strand acts independently, allowing for removal, inspection, and replacement of individual strands. The first two such bridges are the Penobscot Narrows Bridge, completed in 2006, and the Veterans' Glass City Skyway, completed in 2007. [14]

Self-anchored suspension bridge

A self-anchored suspension bridge has some similarity in principle to the cable-stayed type in that tension forces that prevent the deck from dropping are converted into compression forces vertically in the tower and horizontally along the deck structure. It is also related to the suspension bridge in having arcuate main cables with suspender cables, although the self-anchored type lacks the heavy cable anchorages of the ordinary suspension bridge. Unlike either a cable-stayed bridge or a suspension bridge, the self-anchored suspension bridge must be supported by falsework during construction and so it is more expensive to construct.

Notable cable-stayed bridges

Erasmus Bridge, Erasmusbrug, in Rotterdam, Netherlands RotterdamMaasNederland.jpg
Erasmus Bridge, Erasmusbrug, in Rotterdam, Netherlands
A view of the Golden Horn Metro Bridge, with the Galata Tower at the left end of the frame, Istanbul, Turkey GoldenHornMetroBridge 09.JPG
A view of the Golden Horn Metro Bridge, with the Galata Tower at the left end of the frame, Istanbul, Turkey
Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge over the Trinity River in Dallas, Texas, U.S. (2012) The Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge.jpg
Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge over the Trinity River in Dallas, Texas, U.S. (2012)
Most SNP (Bridge of the Slovak National Uprising) - the world's longest cable-stayed bridge to have one pylon and one cable-stayed plane (Bratislava, Slovakia, 1967-1972) Novy Most d.JPG
Most SNP (Bridge of the Slovak National Uprising) – the world's longest cable-stayed bridge to have one pylon and one cable-stayed plane (Bratislava, Slovakia, 1967–1972)
Peljesac Bridge connects the southeastern Croatian exclave to the rest of the country. Peljesac bridge - Most Peljesac - Croatia - 2022-06-16.jpg
Pelješac Bridge connects the southeastern Croatian exclave to the rest of the country.
Rio-Antirrio bridge that crosses the Gulf of Corinth near Patras, linking the town of Rio on the Peloponnese peninsula to Antirrio on mainland Greece by road. Rio-Antirrio bron.png
Rio–Antirrio bridge that crosses the Gulf of Corinth near Patras, linking the town of Rio on the Peloponnese peninsula to Antirrio on mainland Greece by road.
Rio Negro Bridge, at 3,595 metres (11,795 ft), is the longest cable-stayed bridge in Brazil. Ponte-Rio-Negro-Manaus2.jpg
Rio Negro Bridge, at 3,595 metres (11,795 ft), is the longest cable-stayed bridge in Brazil.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Suspension bridge</span> Type of bridge

A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of this type of bridge were built in the early 1800s. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a long history in many mountainous parts of the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Millau Viaduct</span> Cable-stayed bridge in Occitanie, France

The Millau Viaduct is a multispan cable-stayed bridge completed in 2004 across the gorge valley of the Tarn near Millau in the Aveyron department in the Occitanie Region, in Southern France. The design team was led by engineer Michel Virlogeux and English architect Norman Foster. As of October 2023, it is the tallest bridge in the world, having a structural height of 343 metres (1,125 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rio–Antirrio Bridge</span> Bridge

The Rio–Antirrio Bridge, officially the Charilaos Trikoupis Bridge, is one of the world's longest multi-span cable-stayed bridges and longest of the fully suspended type. It crosses the Gulf of Corinth near Patras, linking the town of Rio on the Peloponnese peninsula to Antirrio on mainland Greece by road. It opened one day before the Athens 2004 Summer Olympics, on 12 August 2004, and was used to transport the Olympic flame.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ting Kau Bridge</span> Bridge in New Territories, Hong Kong

Ting Kau Bridge is a 1,177-metre (3,862 ft) long cable-stayed bridge in Hong Kong that spans from the northwest of Tsing Yi Island and Tuen Mun Road. It is near the Tsing Ma Bridge which also serves as a major connector between the Hong Kong International Airport on Lantau Island and the rest of Hong Kong. It was completed on 5 May 1998. The bridge is toll-free.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alamillo Bridge</span> Bridge in Seville

The Alamillo Bridge is a structure in Seville, Andalucia (Spain), which spans the Canal de Alfonso XIII, allowing access to La Cartuja, a peninsula located between the canal and the Guadalquivir River. The bridge was constructed as part of infrastructure improvements for Expo 92, which was held on large banana farms on the island. Construction of the bridge began in 1989 and was completed in 1992 from a design by Santiago Calatrava.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mezcala Bridge</span> Bridge in Guerrero, Mexico

The Mezcala Bridge, is a cable-stayed bridge located in the state of Guerrero on Highway 95D in Mexico. It spans the Balsas River close to the western Pacific coast of the country. This bridge, with a total length of 891 m (2,923 ft) and six uneven spans completed in 1993, has been in service since 1994 as a toll bridge.

A suspension bridge supports its structural load with cables, ropes, or chains anchored at each end. Cables on the earliest suspension bridges were anchored in the ground; some modern suspension bridges anchor the cables to the ends of the bridge itself. Earliest suspension bridges had no towers or piers but the majority of larger modern suspension bridges have them. All of the 14 longest bridges in the world are suspension bridges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extradosed bridge</span> Hybrid bridge fusing the main elements of a prestressed box-girder bridge and a cable-stayed bridge

An extradosed bridge employs a structure that combines the main elements of both a prestressed box girder bridge and a cable-stayed bridge. The name comes from the word extrados, the exterior or upper curve of an arch, and refers to how the "stay cables" on an extradosed bridge are not considered as such in the design, but are instead treated as external prestressing tendons deviating upward from the deck. In this concept, they remain part of the main bridge superstructure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bandra–Worli Sea Link</span> Bridge connecting Bandra Basitt and Worli, Mumbai, India

The Bandra–Worli Sea Link is a 5.6 km long, 8-lane wide cable-stayed bridge that links Bandra in the Western Suburbs of Mumbai with Worli in South Mumbai. It is the second longest sea bridge after Mumbai Trans Harbour Link, as well as the 5th longest bridge in India after Mumbai Trans Harbour Link, Bhupen Hazarika Setu, Dibang River Bridge and Mahatma Gandhi Setu. It contains pre-stressed concrete-steel viaducts on either side. It was planned as a part of the proposed Western Freeway that would link the Western Suburbs to Nariman Point in Mumbai's main business district, but is now planned to become part of the Coastal Road to Kandivali.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rama VIII Bridge</span> Bridge in Bangkok, Thailand

The Rama VIII Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge crossing the Chao Phraya River in Bangkok, Thailand. It was built to alleviate traffic congestion on the nearby Phra Pinklao Bridge. Construction of the bridge took place from 1999 to 2002. The bridge was opened on 7 May 2002 and inaugurated on 20 September, the birth anniversary of the late King Ananda Mahidol, after whom it is named. The bridge has an asymmetrical design, with a single pylon in an inverted Y shape on the west bank of the river. Its eighty-four cables are arranged in pairs on the side of the main span and in a single row on the other. The bridge has a main span of 300 metres (980 ft), and was one of the world's largest asymmetrical cable-stayed bridges at the time of its completion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Incheon Bridge</span> Bridge in Incheon, South Korea

The Incheon Bridge is a reinforced concrete cable-stayed bridge in South Korea. At its opening in October 2009, it became the second bridge connection between Yeongjong Island and the mainland of Incheon. The Incheon Bridge is South Korea's longest spanning cable-stayed bridge. In comparison, it is the world's sixteenth longest cable-stayed bridge as of January 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barelang Bridge</span> Bridge in Batam City, Riau islands

Barelang Bridge is a chain of 6 bridges of various types that connected the Barelang island group of Riau Archipelago built in 1997. The smaller islands of Tonton, Nipah, and Setotok connect Batam and Rempang, while a further small island - Galang Baru - is connected at the southern end of the chain. The entire Barelang region covers 715 square kilometres (276 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phú Mỹ Bridge</span> Bridge in Vietnam

The Phú Mỹ Bridge is a cable-stayed road bridge over the Saigon River in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russky Bridge</span> Bridge in Vladivostok, Russia

The Russky Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge in Vladivostok, Primorsky Krai, Russia. The bridge connects the Russky Island and the Muravyov-Amursky Peninsula sections of the city across the Eastern Bosphorus strait, and with a central span of 1,104 metres, it is the longest cable-stayed bridge in the world. The architect of the Russky Island Bridge is Vlydskinol Ptrov. The Russky Bridge was originally built to serve the 2012 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation conference hosted at the Far Eastern Federal University campus on Russky Island. It was completed in July 2012 and opened by Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev, and on September 3, 2012, the bridge was officially given its name.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vidyasagar Setu</span> Cable-stayed toll bridge in West Bengal, India

Vidyasagar Setu, also known as the Second Hooghly Bridge, is an 822.96-metre-long (2,700 ft) cable-stayed six-laned toll bridge over the Hooghly River in West Bengal, India, linking the cities of Kolkata and Howrah. Opened in 1992, Vidyasagar Setu was the first and longest cable-stayed bridge in India at the time of its inauguration. It was the second bridge to be built across the Hooghly River in Kolkata metropolitan region and was named after the education reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. The project had a cost of ₹388 crore to build. The project was a joint effort between the public and private sectors, under the control of the Hooghly River Bridge Commissioners (HRBC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Térénez bridge</span> Bridge in Crozon

The Térénez bridge is a cable-stayed bridge, located between Landévennec and Rosnoën, Finistère, France.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Twin River Bridges (Chongqing)</span> Bridge in Chongqing, China

The Dongshuimen Bridge and the Qiansimen Bridge, known collectively as the Twin River Bridges, are a pair of bridges that form a road and rail connection in Chongqing, China. Consisting of two cable-stayed bridges and a tunnel across the Yuzhong peninsula where the heart of Chongqing's commercial & financial district Jiefangbei CBD is located, the connection opened in 2014.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Signature Bridge</span> Bridge in Delhi, India

The Signature Bridge is a cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge which spans the Yamuna river at Shourya section, connecting Wazirabad to East Delhi. It is India's first asymmetrical cable-stayed bridge. The pylon of the Signature bridge is the tallest structure in Delhi and is double the height of Qutub Minar with its 154-metre high viewing box, which is a location where visitors take selfies. It shortens the travel time between north and northeast Delhi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Samuel-De Champlain Bridge</span> Bridge in Quebec

The Samuel-De Champlain Bridge, colloquially known as the Champlain Bridge, is a cable-stayed bridge design by architect Poul Ove Jensen and built to replace the original Champlain Bridge over the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec, between Nuns' Island in the borough of Verdun in Montreal and the suburban city of Brossard on the South Shore. A second, connected bridge links Nuns' Island to the main Island of Montreal. It is the busiest bridge in the country with more cars flowing into it than any other bridge.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tirantes Bridge</span> Cable-stayed bridge in Pontevedra, Spain

The Tirantes Bridge is a cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge that crosses the Lérez River in the city of Pontevedra, Spain, linking the south bank to the north bank at the level of the city's Congress Hall.

References

  1. "Types of Bridges". History of Bridges. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
  2. Nordrum, Amy. "Popular Cable-Stay Bridges Rise Across U.S. to Replace Crumbling Spans". Scientific American. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
  3. "Bluff Dale Suspension Bridge". Historic American Engineering Record . Library of Congress.
  4. "Barton Creek Bridge". Historic American Engineering Record . Library of Congress.
  5. 42°30′14″N2°08′37″E / 42.5040°N 2.1436°E
  6. 48°46′51″N3°06′24″W / 48.7807°N 3.1065345°W
  7. 36°38′56″N5°55′49″W / 36.64876°N 5.9304°W
  8. 1 2 Troyano, Leonardo (2003). Bridge Engineering: A Global Perspective. Thomas Telford. pp. 650–652. ISBN   0-7277-3215-3.
  9. 44°22′57″N4°43′42″E / 44.3824°N 4.7284°E
  10. 1 2 "Cable Stayed Bridge". Middle East Economic Engineering Forum. Archived from the original on 25 May 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
  11. Sarhang Zadeh, Olfat (October 2012). "Comparison Between Three Types of Cable Stayed Bridges Using Structural Optimization" (PDF). Western University Canada.
  12. T.K. Bandyopadhyay; Alok Baishya (2000). P. Dayaratnam; G.P. Garg; G.V. Ratnam; R.N. Raghavan (eds.). International Conference on Suspension, Cable Supported, and Cable Stayed Bridges: November 19–21, 1999, Hyderabad. Universities Press (India). pp. 282, 373. ISBN   978-81-7371-271-5.
  13. Virlogeux, Michel (1 February 2001). "Bridges with multiple cable-stayed spans". Structural Engineering International. 11 (1): 61–82. doi:10.2749/101686601780324250. S2CID   109604691.
  14. "Bridging To The Future Of Engineering" (Press release). American Society of Civil Engineers. 12 March 2007. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2008.
  15. 1 2 "First Amazon bridge to open world's greatest rainforest to development". The Guardian . 5 August 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
  16. "Rio Negro Bridge, $400-Million Economic Link, Opens in Amazon Basin". www.enr.com. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  17. "United States: The longest cable-stayed bridge in the West". 14 August 2015.
  18. Paybarah, Azi; Schweber, Nate (29 August 2019). "The City's Most Hated Bridge Gets a Nearly $1 Billion Makeover". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 29 August 2019.
  19. "Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge, 2012 OCEA". Texas Section-American Society of Civil Engineers. Archived from the original on 5 January 2017. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
  20. "Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Awards". Texas Section-American Society of Civil Engineers. Archived from the original on 18 February 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
  21. "Margaret Hunt Bridge, Dallas, USA". 2012 ECCS Award For Steel Bridges. Brussels, Belgium: European Convention for Constructional Steelwork. pp. 4–7. Archived from the original on 5 January 2017. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
  22. "Queensferry Crossing | the Forth Bridges".
  23. "Cable Stays: Second Severn Crossing" (PDF). Freyssinet.

Further reading