| Kadu | |
|---|---|
| Asak | |
| Native to | Myanmar |
| Region | Sagaing Region |
| Ethnicity | Kadu |
Native speakers | 30,000 (2007) [1] |
| Dialects |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | zkd |
| Glottolog | kadu1254 |
| ELP | Kadu |
Kadu or Kado (Kadu: 
); is a Sino-Tibetan language of the Sal branch spoken in Sagaing Region, Myanmar by the Kadu people. Dialects are Settaw, Mawkhwin, and Mawteik [extinct], with 30,000 speakers total. Kadu is considered an endangered language, and is closely related to the Ganan and Sak languages. [2]
Alternate names for Kadu listed in Ethnologue are Gadu, Kado, Kadu-Ganaan, Kantu, Kato, Kudo, Maw, Mawteik, Puteik, and Thet; the autonym is Asak.
Statistics for Kadu-speaking villages are as follows: [1]
The speakers of the Kadu language live in Banmauk, Indaw, and Pinlebu, which are three townships in the Katha District, Sagaing Region, Myanmar. Among these three, Banmauk has the largest Kadu-speaking population and Pinlebu has the smallest Kadu-speaking population. [3] Many Kadu speakers have shifted to Burmese or are bilingual in Burmese. [2]
There is low mutual intelligibility among the Mawkhwin, Settaw, and Mawteik dialects of Kadu. [4] Settaw and Mawteik share 95 to 98% mutual intelligibility, while Mawkhwin Kadu and other Kadu varieties share 91 to 93% lexical similarity. [4] Kadu shares 84%–89% lexical similarity with Kanan. [4]
The Kadu were the dominant ethnic group in the Chindwin River valley at the beginning of the early 2nd millennium A.D. until the Chin people and subsequently the Shan people migrated into the Chindwin Valley (Matisoff 2013:13). [5]
Kadu vowels consist of eight monophthongs and a diphthong /ai/. [6]
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u | |
| Close-mid | e | ɘ | o |
| Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ | |
| Open | a |
Kadu has 20 consonants.
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Alveolo-palatal | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | aspirated | plain | aspirated | plain | aspirated | plain | aspirated | |||
| Stop | p | pʰ | t | tʰ | k | kʰ | ʔ | |||
| Affricate | t͡ɕ | t͡ɕʰ | ||||||||
| Fricative | s | sʰ | ɕ | h | ||||||
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | ||||||
| Approximant | l | j | w | |||||||
The final consonants need to be nasals /m,n,ŋ/ or voiceless stops /p,t,k,ʔ/. [3]
Kadu has three tones; high, mid, and low. [7]
C1C2V1V2C3
C: Consonant
V: Vowel
C1: necessary, this can be any Kadu consonant except unvoiced nasals.
C2: optional, this can be only /l,w,y/.
V1: necessary, this can be any Kadu vowel, however, /ɘ/ appears only in the form of CɘC.
V2: optional.
C3: optional, this can be only /p,t,m,n,ʔ,ŋ/. [6]
Kadu has 19 consonants
 k (/ka˨˦/) |  kh (/kʰa˨˦/) |  ṅ (/ŋa˨˦/) |
 c (/ca˨˦/) |  ch (/sʰa˨˦/) |  ñ (/ɲa˨˦/) |
 t (/ta˨˦/) |  th (/tʰa˨˦/) |  na (/na˨˦/) |
 pa (/pa˨˦/) |  ph (/pʰa˨˦/) |  ma (/ma˨/) |
 y (/ja˨˦/) |  l (/la˨˦/) |  v (/wa˨˦/) |
 ky (/tɕ˨˦/) |  khy (/tɕʰ˨˦/) |  sha (/ɕa˨˦/) |
 h (/ha˨˦/) |
Kadu is an SOV language. [6]
Abstract nouns such as freedom, love, experience, and anger are not attested in the Kadu noun class. They are usually expressed by verbs or adjectival verbs.
The language has two categories of nouns:
1, So called "simple nouns" are treated as monomorphemic by the native speakers.
2, Nouns known as "complex nouns" are polymorphemic, and most of the complex nouns come from the process of compounding.
Adjectives that expresses dimensions and qualities such as "tong" (=big) and "lom" (=warm) function as verbs, and are categorized as verbs.
The verbs are structurally categorized as:
1, Simple verbs, which are treated as monomorphemic words by the native speakers.
and
2, Polymorphemic complex verbs.
Kadu verbs may be reduplicated using the same morpheme or may take attendant words to express the repeated or frequent actions.
V-V constructions function as resultative, directional, evaluative, explanatory, or manner.
The adverbs are also "simple" or "complex" like nouns and verbs.
One thing to point up is that the complex adverbs are derived from verbs or nominals by the processes of reduplication or semi-reduplication.
| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Kadu has retained native numerals for only the numerals one, two, three, and four. [7] Other numerals have been supplanted by Tai Laing and Burmese numerals. [7] [8] [9]
Numerals are always attached to classifiers, although classifiers do not occur with multiples of ten.
As for ordinal numbers, Burmese ordinal numbers are used because the original ordinal numbers are already lost.
| singular | plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | nga | maleq |
| 2nd person | nang | haning |
| 3rd person | hing | antak, matak |
Quantifiers follow the head noun they quantify.
There are nominal relational markers, verbal particles, clausal particles, utterance final particles, and speaker attitude particles.
Yes/no questions are formed by simply adding either of the two interrogative particles "la" and "ka" at the end of the phrase.
Yes/no questions can also be expressed by an alternative interrogative expression like "is it A or not A", which can be found in Mandarin Chinese as well.
Interrogative sentences can be made by adding "chi" (=true) at the end of sentences, like "right?" in English language.
Wh- questions are formed by attaching the Wh-word forming morphemes, " 
ma" or " 
ha", to specific nomials or nominal postpositions.
Wh- question words also may function as indefinite pronouns such as "whatever", "anyone" and so on.
Verbs can be negated by negative proclitics, "a-" and "in-". [3]
 |
| əsàʔ təmìsʰā taʔ ká buddha pʰəjásʰwàŋ tē waìŋ tətɕí mà |
| acak tamicha tat ka buddha phayachvan̊ te wain̊ ta kyi ma |
| Kadu people worship Buddha. |
 |
| əsàʔ təmìsʰā tāʔ ká əmɛ̄awâ tāʔ ósʰətɕí tàʔ tē mít tɕí mà |
| acak tamicha tat ka amai ava tat o chakyi tat te mit kyi ma |
| Kadu people respect and love their parents, teachers. |
 |
| əsàʔ tɕeíŋ sʰɔ̄m tətɕī tʰá mā |
| acak kyein̊ chom takyi tha ma |
| Let's learn Kadu. |
 |
| əsàʔ tú təpaúʔ tɕí tʰà mā |
| acak tu tapot kyi tha ma |
| Let's speak Kadu. |
 |
| ɕīʔɕā tāʔ tē əsàʔ tɕeíŋ sʰɔ̄m tɔ́ ī |
| rhit rha tat te acak kyein̊ chom to i |
| Teach Kadu to children. |
 |
| məlê ŋā naīʔ ŋâ əsàʔ tɕeíŋ sʰɔ̄m tətɕī kû |
| male n̊a nait n̊a acak kyein̊chom ta kyi ku |
| We will all learn Kadu. |
Khmer is an Austroasiatic language spoken by the Khmer people and the official and national language of Cambodia. Khmer has been influenced considerably by Sanskrit and Pali especially in the royal and religious registers, through Hinduism and Buddhism, due to Old Khmer being the language of the historical empires of Chenla, Angkor.
Burmese is a Sino-Tibetan language spoken in Myanmar, where it is the official language, lingua franca, and the native language of the Bamar, the country's principal ethnic group. Burmese is also spoken by the indigenous tribes in Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh, and in Tripura state in India. The Constitution of Myanmar officially refers to it as the Myanmar language in English, though most English speakers continue to refer to the language as Burmese, after Burma—a name with co-official status that had historically been predominantly used for the country. Burmese is the most widely-spoken language in the country, where it serves as the lingua franca. In 2007, it was spoken as a first language by 33 million. Burmese is spoken as a second language by another 10 million people, including ethnic minorities in Myanmar like the Mon and also by those in neighboring countries. In 2022, the Burmese-speaking population was 38.8 million.
Tshangla is a Sino-Tibetan language of the Bodish branch closely related to the Tibetic languages. Tshangla is primarily spoken in Eastern Bhutan and acts as a lingua franca in the region; it is also spoken in the adjoining Tawang tract in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh and the Pemako region of Tibet. Tshangla is the principal pre-Tibetan language of Bhutan.
Dulong or Drung, Derung, Rawang, or Trung, is a Sino-Tibetan language in China. Dulong is closely related to the Rawang language of Myanmar (Burma). Although almost all ethnic Derung people speak the language to some degree, most are multilingual, also speaking Burmese, Lisu, and Mandarin Chinese except for a few very elderly people.
Oroha, categorized as an Austronesian language, is one of many languages spoken by Melanesian people in the Solomon Islands. It is also known as Maramasike, Mara Ma-Siki, Oraha, and Oloha, and is used primarily in the southern part of Malaita Island within the Malaita Province. Little Mala is composed of three indigenous languages of the 'Tolo' people which are Na’oni, Pau, and Oroha. They are all slightly different, yet come from the same origin. The three languages may be thought of as different dialects of the same language. The three Tolo villages now harbor schools under the Melanesian Mission.
Rukai is a Formosan language spoken by the Rukai people in Taiwan. It is a member of the Austronesian language family. The Rukai language comprises six dialects, which are Budai, Labuan, Maga, Mantauran, Tanan and Tona. The number of speakers of the six Rukai dialects is estimated to be about 10,000. Some of them are monolingual. There are varying degrees of mutual intelligibility among the Rukai dialects. Rukai is notable for its distinct grammatical voice system among the Formosan languages.
Araki is a nearly extinct language spoken in the small island of Araki, south of Espiritu Santo Island in Vanuatu. Araki is gradually being replaced by Tangoa, a language from a neighbouring island.
Akha is the language spoken by the Akha people of southern China, eastern Burma, northern Laos, and northern Thailand.
The Sal languages, also known as the Brahmaputran languages, are a branch of Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in northeast India, as well as parts of Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), and China.
The Jingpho-Luish, Jingpho-Asakian, Kachin–Luic, or Kachinic languages are a group of Sino-Tibetan languages belonging the Sal branch. They are spoken in northeastern India, Bangladesh and Myanmar, and consist of the Jingpho language and the Luish languages Sak, Kadu, Ganan, Andro, Sengmai, and Chairel. Ethnologue and Glottolog include the extinct or nearly extinct Taman language in the Jingpo branch, but Huziwara (2016) considers it to be unclassified within Tibeto-Burman.
The Kadu people are an ethnic group in Myanmar. They speak the Kadu language. They mostly reside in the country's northwestern hills, centred around Katha, and are ethnolinguistically related to the Ganan and Sak peoples. The Kadu traditionally cultivate rice on irrigated terraces.
Proto-Tibeto-Burman is the reconstructed ancestor of the Tibeto-Burman languages, that is, the Sino-Tibetan languages, except for Chinese. An initial reconstruction was produced by Paul K. Benedict and since refined by James Matisoff. Several other researchers argue that the Tibeto-Burman languages sans Chinese do not constitute a monophyletic group within Sino-Tibetan, and therefore that Proto-Tibeto-Burman was the same language as Proto-Sino-Tibetan.
Kiwai is a Papuan language, or languages, of southern Papua New Guinea. Dialects number 1,300 Kope, 700 Gibaio, 1,700 Urama, 700 Arigibi, 3,800 Coast, 1,000 Daru, 4,500 Island, 400 Doumori. Wurm and Hattori (1981) classify Arigibi as a separate language.
Sak is a Sino-Tibetan language of the Sal branch spoken in Bangladesh and Myanmar by the Chak people.
The Luish, Asakian, or Sak languages are a group of Sino-Tibetan languages belonging to the Sal branch. They are spoken in Burma and Bangladesh, and consist of the Sak, Kadu, and Ganan languages. In recent years, Luish languages have been influenced by Burmese and Chakma.
Byangsi is a West Himalayish language of India and Nepal. Estimates of numbers of speakers vary, but some sources say that the language is spoken by about 1,000-1,500 people, while others estimate as many as 3,300. Byangsi is from a region of high language density, that is to say that there are many languages among few people. It is the most dominant language in this region, although it is not widely known outside of its small hill district and those who speak it have difficulty classifying themselves for central government dealings.
Kanashi is a Sino-Tibetan language spoken in the isolated Malana (Malani) village area in Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh, India. It is, to some extent mutually intelligible with other Sino-Tibetan language like Kinnauri.
Saliba is an Oceanic language spoken on the islets off the southeastern tip of Papua New Guinea. There are approximately 2,500 speakers of Saliba. Significant documentation of the language was undertaken by the Saliba-Logea documentation project, and hundreds of audio-video resources can be found in the project archive.
Ganan is a Sino-Tibetan language of northwestern Myanmar, spoken in Sagaing Region. It belongs to the Luish branch, and is most closely related to the Kadu language of Myanmar, with which it shares 84 to 89% lexical similarity. The Ganan dialects share 95 to 99% lexical similarity.
Taman is an extinct Sino-Tibetan language that was spoken in Htamanthi village in Homalin Township, Sagaing Region, northern Myanmar. It was documented in a list of 75 words in Brown (1911). Keisuke Huziwara (2016) discovered an elderly rememberer of Taman in Htamanthi who could remember some Taman phrases as well as a short song, but was not fluent in the Taman language. However, no fluent speakers of Taman remained in the area.
Sino-Tibetan branches | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Western Himalayas (Himachal, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Sikkim) |
|  | |||
| Eastern Himalayas (Tibet, Bhutan, Arunachal) | |||||
| Myanmar and Indo- Burmese border |
| ||||
| East and Southeast Asia |
| ||||
| Dubious (possible isolates) (Arunachal) |
| ||||
| Proposed groupings | |||||
| Proto-languages | |||||
Italics indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches. | |||||