Kirlian photography

Last updated
Kirlian photograph of two coins Kirl66 g.png
Kirlian photograph of two coins

Kirlian photography is a collection of photographic techniques used to capture the phenomenon of electrical coronal discharges. It is named after Soviet scientist Semyon Kirlian, who, in 1939, accidentally discovered that if an object on a photographic plate is connected to a high-voltage source, an image is produced on the photographic plate. [1] The technique has been variously known as "electrography", [2] "electrophotography", [3] "corona discharge photography" (CDP), [4] "bioelectrography", [5] "gas discharge visualization (GDV)", [6] "electrophotonic imaging (EPI)", [7] and, in Russian literature, "Kirlianography".

Contents

Kirlian photography has been the subject of scientific research, parapsychology research, and art. Paranormal claims have been made about Kirlian photography, but these claims are rejected by the scientific community. [8] [9] To a large extent, it has been used in alternative medicine research. [10]

History

In 1889, Czech Bartoloměj Navrátil  [ cs ] coined the word "electrography". Seven years later in 1896, a French experimenter, Hippolyte Baraduc, created electrographs of hands and leaves.

In 1898, Polish-Belarusian engineer Jakub Jodko-Narkiewicz [11] [note 1] demonstrated electrography at the fifth exhibition of the Russian Technical Society.

Kirlian photograph of a fingertip, 1989 A Kirlian Photography, male 1989.jpg
Kirlian photograph of a fingertip, 1989

In 1939, two Czechs, S. Pratt and J. Schlemmer, published photographs showing a glow around leaves. The same year, Russian electrical engineer Semyon Kirlian and his wife Valentina developed Kirlian photography after observing a patient in Krasnodar Hospital who was receiving medical treatment from a high-frequency electrical generator. They had noticed that when the electrodes were brought near the patient's skin, there was a glow similar to that of a neon discharge tube. [12]

The Kirlians conducted experiments in which photographic film was placed on top of a conducting plate, and another conductor was attached to a hand, a leaf or other plant material. The conductors were energized by a high-frequency high-voltage power source, producing photographic images typically showing a silhouette of the object surrounded by an aura of light.

In 1958, the Kirlians reported the results of their experiments for the first time. Their work was virtually unknown until 1970, when two Americans, Lynn Schroeder and Sheila Ostrander, published a book, Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain. High-voltage electrophotography soon became known to the general public as Kirlian photography. Although little interest was generated among western scientists, Russians held a conference on the subject in 1972 at Kazakh State University. [13]

Kirlian photography was used in the former Eastern Bloc in the 1970s. The corona discharge glow at the surface of an object subjected to a high-voltage electrical field was referred to as a "Kirlian aura" in Russia and Eastern Europe. [14] [15] In 1975, soviet scientist Victor Adamenko wrote a dissertation titled Research of the structure of High-frequency electric discharge (Kirlian effect) images. [16] [17] Scientific study of what the researchers called the Kirlian effect was conducted by Victor Inyushin at Kazakh State University. [18] [19]

Early in the 1970s, Thelma Moss and Kendall Johnson at the Center for Health Sciences at the UCLA conducted extensive research [13] into Kirlian photography. Moss led an independent and unsupported parapsychology laboratory [20] that was shut down by the university in 1979. [21]

Overview

Kirlian Photography Cross Section.png
Typical Kirlian photography setup (cross-section)
Kirlian Discharge Tests on a metal washer
Kirlian photograph of a fingertip Kirlian color finger.jpg
Kirlian photograph of a fingertip
Kirlian photograph of two coins Kirlian coins.jpg
Kirlian photograph of two coins
Kirlian photograph of a Coleus leaf Kirlian Photograph of a Coleus Leaf 1980.jpg
Kirlian photograph of a Coleus leaf

Kirlian photography is a technique for creating contact print photographs using high voltage. The process entails placing sheet photographic film on top of a metal discharge plate. The object to be photographed is then placed directly on top of the film. High voltage current is momentarily applied to the object, thus creating an exposure. The corona discharge between the object and the plate due to high-voltage is captured by the film. The developed film results in a Kirlian photograph of the object.

Color photographic film is calibrated to produce faithful colors when exposed to normal light. Corona discharges can interact with minute variations in the different layers of dye used in the film, resulting in a wide variety of colors depending on the local intensity of the discharge. [4] Film and digital imaging techniques also record light produced by photons emitted during corona discharge (see Mechanism of corona discharge).

Photographs of inanimate objects such as a coins, keys and leaves can be made more effectively by grounding the object to the earth, a cold water pipe or to the opposite (polarity) side of the high-voltage source. Grounding the object creates a stronger corona discharge. [22]

Kirlian photography does not require the use of a camera or a lens because it is a contact print process. It is possible to use a transparent electrode in place of the high-voltage discharge plate, for capturing the resulting corona discharge with a standard photo or video camera. [23]

Visual artists such as Robert Buelteman, [24] Ted Hiebert, [25] and Dick Lane [26] have used Kirlian photography to produce artistic images of a variety of subjects.

Research

Kirlian photography has been a subject of scientific research, parapsychology research and pseudoscientific claims. [10] [27]

Scientific research

Results of scientific experiments published in 1976 involving Kirlian photography of living tissue (human finger tips) showed that most of the variations in corona discharge streamer length, density, curvature, and color can be accounted for by the moisture content on the surface of and within the living tissue. [28]

Kirlian photograph of a dusty leaf MDR Dusty Miller.jpg
Kirlian photograph of a dusty leaf

Konstantin Korotkov developed a technique similar to Kirlian photography called "gas discharge visualization" (GDV). [29] [30] [31] Korotkov's GDV camera system consists of hardware and software to directly record, process and interpret GDV images with a computer. Korotkov promotes the device and research in a medical context. [32] Izabela Ciesielska at the Institute of Architecture of Textiles in Poland used Korotkov's GDV camera to evaluate the effects of human contact with various textiles on biological factors such as heart rate and blood pressure, as well as corona discharge images. The experiments captured corona discharge images of subjects' fingertips while the subjects wore sleeves of various natural and synthetic materials on their forearms. The results failed to establish a relationship between human contact with the textiles and the corona discharge images and were considered inconclusive. [11]

Parapsychology research

In 1968, Thelma Moss, a psychology professor, headed the UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute (NPI), which was later renamed the Semel Institute. The NPI had a laboratory dedicated to parapsychology research and staffed mostly with volunteers. The lab was unfunded, unsanctioned and eventually shut down by the university. Toward the end of her tenure at UCLA, Moss became interested in Kirlian photography, a technique that supposedly measured the "auras" of a living being. According to Kerry Gaynor, one of her former research assistants, "many felt Kirlian photography's effects were just a natural occurrence." [21]

Paranormal claims of Kirlian photography have not been observed or replicated in experiments by the scientific community. [8] [9] The physiologist Gordon Stein has written that Kirlian photography is a hoax that has "nothing to do with health, vitality, or mood of a subject photographed." [33]

Claims

Kirlian believed that images created by Kirlian photography might depict a conjectural energy field, or aura, thought, by some, to surround living things. Kirlian and his wife were convinced that their images showed a life force or energy field that reflected the physical and emotional states of their living subjects. They thought that these images could be used to diagnose illnesses. In 1961, they published their first article on the subject in the Russian Journal of Scientific and Applied Photography. [34] Kirlian's claims were embraced by energy treatments practitioners. [35]

Torn leaf experiment

A typical demonstration used as evidence for the existence of these energy fields involved taking Kirlian photographs of a picked leaf at set intervals. The gradual withering of the leaf was thought to correspond with a decline in the strength of the aura. In some experiments, if a section of a leaf was torn away after the first photograph, a faint image of the missing section sometimes remains when a second photograph was taken. However, if the imaging surface is cleaned of contaminants and residual moisture before the second image is taken, then no image of the missing section will appear. [36] [37] [38]

The living aura theory is at least partially repudiated by demonstrating that leaf moisture content has a pronounced effect on the electric discharge coronas; more moisture creates larger corona discharges. [4] As the leaf dehydrates, the coronas will naturally decrease in variability and intensity. As a result, the changing water content of the leaf can affect the so-called Kirlian aura. Kirlian's experiments did not provide evidence for an energy field other than the electric fields produced by chemical processes and the streaming process of coronal discharges. [4]

The coronal discharges identified as Kirlian auras are the result of stochastic electric ionization processes and are greatly affected by many factors, including the voltage and frequency of the stimulus, the pressure with which a person or object touches the imaging surface, the local humidity around the object being imaged, how well grounded the person or object is, and other local factors affecting the conductivity of the person or object being imaged. Oils, sweat, bacteria, and other ionizing contaminants found on living tissues can also affect the resulting images. [39] [40] [41]

Qi

Scientists such as Beverly Rubik have explored the idea of a human biofield using Kirlian photography research, attempting to explain the Chinese discipline of Qigong. Qigong teaches that there is a vitalistic energy called qi (or chi) that permeates all living things.

Rubik's experiments relied on Konstantin Korotkov's GDV device to produce images, which were thought to visualize these qi biofields in chronically ill patients. Rubik acknowledges that the small sample size in her experiments "was too small to permit a meaningful statistical analysis". [42] Claims that these energies can be captured by special photographic equipment are criticized by skeptics. [35]

Kirlian photography has appeared as a fictional element in numerous books, films, television series, and media productions, including the 1975 film The Kirlian Force, re-released under the more sensational title Psychic Killer . Kirlian photographs have been used as visual components in various media, such as the sleeve of George Harrison's 1973 album Living in the Material World , which features Kirlian photographs of his hand holding a Hindu medallion on the front sleeve and American coins on the back, shot at Thelma Moss's UCLA parapsychology laboratory. [43]

The artwork of David Bowie's 1997 album Earthling has reproductions of Kirlian photographs taken by Bowie. The photographs, which show a crucifix Bowie wore around his neck and the imprint of his "forefinger" tip, date to April 1975 when Bowie was living in Los Angeles and fascinated with the paranormal. The photographs were taken before consuming cocaine and 30 minutes afterwards. The after photograph apparently shows a substantial increase in the "aura" around the crucifix and forefinger.

The Cluster novels by science fiction author Piers Anthony uses the concept of the Kirlian Aura as a way to transfer a person's personality into another body, even an alien body, across light years. The book The Anarchistic Colossus (1977) by A.E.van Vogt involves an anarchistic society controlled by ‘Kirlian computers’.

The opening credits during the first seven seasons of the television series The X-Files shows a Kirlian image of a left human hand. The image appears as the 11th clip in the introductory video montage and is formed by a bluish coronal discharge as the primary outline, with only the proximal phalange of the index finger shown cryptically in red. A human silhouette, in white, seemingly falls towards the hand.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Alternatively transliterated Narkevich-Yodko. It is spelled Narkevich-Todko in some sources; In Russian: Наркевич-Йодко. Some sources state that he was Polish, rendering his name Jacob Jodko-Narkiewicz

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clairvoyance</span> Claimed form of extrasensory perception

Clairvoyance is the claimed ability to acquire information that would be considered impossible to get through scientifically proven sensations, thus classified as extrasensory perception, or "sixth sense". Any person who is claimed to have such ability is said to be a clairvoyant.

Extrasensory perception or ESP, also called sixth sense, is a claimed paranormal ability pertaining to reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses, but sensed with the mind. The term was adopted by Duke University botanist J. B. Rhine to denote psychic abilities such as intuition, telepathy, psychometry, clairvoyance, clairaudience, clairsentience, empathy and their trans-temporal operation as precognition or retrocognition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photography</span> Art and practice of creating images by recording light

Photography is the art, application, and practice of creating images by recording light, either electronically by means of an image sensor, or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film. It is employed in many fields of science, manufacturing, and business, as well as its more direct uses for art, film and video production, recreational purposes, hobby, and mass communication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parapsychology</span> Study of paranormal and psychic phenomena

Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena and other paranormal claims, for example, those related to near-death experiences, synchronicity, apparitional experiences, etc. Criticized as being a pseudoscience, the majority of mainstream scientists reject it. Parapsychology has also been criticised by mainstream critics for claims by many of its practitioners that their studies are plausible despite a lack of convincing evidence after more than a century of research for the existence of any psychic phenomena.

Parapsychology is a field of research that studies a number of ostensible paranormal phenomena, including telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis, near-death experiences, reincarnation, and apparitional experiences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Telepathy</span> Psychic ability

Telepathy is the purported vicarious transmission of information from one person's mind to another's without using any known human sensory channels or physical interaction. The term was first coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Frederic W. H. Myers, a founder of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), and has remained more popular than the earlier expression thought-transference.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Astrophotography</span> Imaging of astronomical objects

Astrophotography, also known as astronomical imaging, is the photography or imaging of astronomical objects, celestial events, or areas of the night sky. The first photograph of an astronomical object was taken in 1840, but it was not until the late 19th century that advances in technology allowed for detailed stellar photography. Besides being able to record the details of extended objects such as the Moon, Sun, and planets, modern astrophotography has the ability to image objects outside of the visible spectrum of the human eye such as dim stars, nebulae, and galaxies. This is accomplished through long time exposure as both film and digital cameras can accumulate and sum photons over long periods of time or using specialized optical filters which limit the photons to a certain wavelength.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corona discharge</span> Ionization of air around a high-voltage conductor

A corona discharge is an electrical discharge caused by the ionization of a fluid such as air surrounding a conductor carrying a high voltage. It represents a local region where the air has undergone electrical breakdown and become conductive, allowing charge to continuously leak off the conductor into the air. A corona discharge occurs at locations where the strength of the electric field around a conductor exceeds the dielectric strength of the air. It is often seen as a bluish glow in the air adjacent to pointed metal conductors carrying high voltages, and emits light by the same mechanism as a gas discharge lamp. Corona discharges can also happen in weather, such as thunderstorms, where objects like ship masts or airplane wings have a charge significantly different from the air around them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Color photography</span> Photography that reproduces colors

Color photography is a type of photography that uses media capable of capturing and reproducing colors. By contrast, black-and-white or gray-monochrome photography records only a single channel of luminance (brightness) and uses media capable only of showing shades of gray.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aura (paranormal)</span> Parapsychological and spiritual concept

According to spiritual beliefs, an aura or energy field is a colored emanation said to enclose a human body or any animal or object. In some esoteric positions, the aura is described as a subtle body. Psychics and holistic medicine practitioners often claim to have the ability to see the size, color and type of vibration of an aura.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thoughtography</span> Claimed psychic ability

Thoughtography, also called projected thermography,psychic photography,nengraphy, and nensha(Japanese: 念写), is the claimed ability to "burn" images from one's mind onto surfaces such as photographic film by parapsychic means. While the term "thoughtography" has been in the English lexicon since 1913, the more recent term "projected thermography" is a neologism popularized in the 2002 American film The Ring, a remake of the 1998 Japanese horror film Ring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spirit photography</span> Attempt to capture images of ghosts or spirits

Spirit photography is a type of photography whose primary goal is to capture images of ghosts and other spiritual entities, especially in ghost hunting. It dates back to the late 19th century. The end of the American Civil War and the mid-19th Century Spiritualism movement contributed greatly to the popularity of spirit photography. Photographers such as William Mumler and William Hope ran thriving businesses taking photos of people with their supposed dead relatives. Both were shown to be frauds, but "true believers", such as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, refused to accept the evidence as proof of a hoax.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to photography:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ectoplasm (paranormal)</span> Substance in spiritualism

Ectoplasm is a term used in Spiritualism to denote a substance or spiritual energy "exteriorized" by physical mediums. It was coined in 1894 by psychical researcher Charles Richet. Although the term is widespread in popular culture, there is no scientific evidence that ectoplasm exists and many purported examples were exposed as hoaxes fashioned from cheesecloth, gauze or other natural substances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rudi Schneider</span> Austrian Spiritualist and physical medium

Rudi Schneider, son of Josef Schneider and brother of Willi Schneider, was an Austrian Spiritualist and physical medium. His career was covered extensively by the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, and he took part in a number of notable experiments conducted by paranormal researchers/debunkers, including Harry Price, Albert von Schrenck-Notzing and Eric Dingwall. Some of these researchers declared him to be a fraud while others were unable to find evidence of trickery.

Thelma Moss was an American actress, and later a psychologist and parapsychologist, best known for her work on Kirlian photography and the human aura.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stanisława Tomczyk</span> Polish spiritual medium

Stanisława Janina Tomczyk was a Polish spiritual medium in the early 20th century known for her alleged demonstrations of psychokinesis and psychic photography. Magicians and skeptics have dismissed Tomczyk as a fraud who performed her feats with the aid of a hidden thread.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Telekinesis</span> Influencing of objects without physical interaction

Telekinesis is a hypothetical psychic ability allowing an individual to influence a physical system without physical interaction. Experiments to prove the existence of telekinesis have historically been criticized for lack of proper controls and repeatability. There is no reliable evidence that telekinesis is a real phenomenon, and the topic is generally regarded as pseudoscience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Semyon Kirlian</span> Russian inventor

Semyon Davidovich Kirlian was a Soviet inventor and researcher of Armenian descent, who along with his wife Valentina Khrisanfovna Kirlian, a teacher and journalist, discovered and developed Kirlian photography.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abstract photography</span> Photography genre

Abstract photography, sometimes called non-objective, experimental or conceptual photography, is a means of depicting a visual image that does not have an immediate association with the object world and that has been created through the use of photographic equipment, processes or materials. An abstract photograph may isolate a fragment of a natural scene to remove its inherent context from the viewer, it may be purposely staged to create a seemingly unreal appearance from real objects, or it may involve the use of color, light, shadow, texture, shape and/or form to convey a feeling, sensation or impression. The image may be produced using traditional photographic equipment like a camera, darkroom or computer, or it may be created without using a camera by directly manipulating film, paper or other photographic media, including digital presentations.

References

  1. ↑ Julie McCarron-Benson in Skeptical - a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal, ed Donald Laycock, David Vernon, Colin Groves, Simon Brown, Imagecraft, Canberra, 1989, ISBN   0-7316-5794-2, p11
  2. ↑ Konikiewicz, Leonard W. (1978). Introduction to electrography: A handbook for prospective researchers of the Kirlian effect in biomedicine. Leonard's Associates.
  3. ↑ Lane, Earle (1975). Electrophotography. And/Or Press (San Francisco).
  4. 1 2 3 4 Boyers, David G. & Tiller, William A. (1973). "Corona discharge photography". Journal of Applied Physics. 44 (7): 3102–3112. Bibcode:1973JAP....44.3102B. doi:10.1063/1.1662715.
  5. ↑ Konikiewicz, Leonard W.; Griff, Leonard C. (1984). Bioelectrography, a new method for detecting cancer and monitoring body physiology. Leonard Associates Press (Harrisburg, PA).
  6. ↑ Bankovskii, N. G.; Korotkov, K. G.; Petrov, N. N. (Apr 1986). "Physical processes of image formation during gas-discharge visualization (the Kirlian effect) (Review)". Radiotekhnika I Elektronika. 31: 625–643. Bibcode:1986RaEl...31..625B.
  7. ↑ Wisneski, Leonard A. & Anderson, Lucy (2010). The Scientific Basis of Integrative Medicine. Taylor & Francis. ISBN   978-1-4200-8290-6.
  8. 1 2 Singer, Barry. (1981). Kirlian Photography. In George O. Abell, Barry Singer. Science and the Paranormal. pp. 196-208. ISBN   978-0862450373
  9. 1 2 Watkins, Arleen J; Bickell, William S. (1986). A Study of the Kirlian Effect. Skeptical Inquirer 10: 244-257.
  10. 1 2 Stenger, Victor J. (1999). "Bioenergetic Fields". The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine. 3 (1). Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
  11. 1 2 Ciesielska, Izabela L. (March 2009). "Images of Corona Discharges as a Source of Information About the Influence of Textiles on Humans" (PDF). AUTEX Research Journal. Lodz, Poland. 9 (1): 36–41. doi:10.1515/aut-2009-090106. S2CID   56388931 . Retrieved 26 August 2012.
  12. ↑ Kirlian, S. D. (1949) Method for Receiving Photographic Pictures of Different Types of Objects, Patent, N106401 USSR.
  13. 1 2 Richard Cavendish, ed. (1994). Man, Myth and Magic. Vol. 11. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish. p. 1481. ISBN   978-1-85435-731-1.
  14. ↑ Antonov, A., Yuskesselieva, L. (1985) Selective High Frequency Discharge (Kirlian effect), Acta Hydrophysica, Berlin, p. 29.
  15. ↑ Juravlev, A. E. (1966) Living Luminescence and Kirlian effect, Academy of Science in USSR.
  16. ↑ Adamenko, V. G. (1972) Objects Moved at a Distance by Means of a Controlled Bioelectric Field, In Abstracts, International Congress of Psychology, Tokyo.
  17. ↑ Kulin, E. T. (1980) Bioelectrical Effects, Science and Technology, Minsk.
  18. ↑ Petrosyan, V., I., et al. (1996) Bioelectrical Discharge, Biomedical Radio-Engineering and Electronics, №3.
  19. ↑ Inyushin, V. M., Gritsenko, V. S. (1968) The Biological Essence of Kirlian effect, Alma Ata, Kazakhstan, State University.
  20. ↑ Thelma Moss (December 1979). The body electric: a personal journey into the mysteries of parapsychological research, bioenergy, and Kirlian photography. J. P. Tarcher. ISBN   978-0-312-90437-1.
  21. 1 2 Greene, Sean (27 October 2010). "UCLA lab researched parapsychology in the '70s". News, A Closer Look. UCLA Daily Bruin. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
  22. ↑ Iovine, John (June 2000). "Kirlian Photography, Part Deux". Poptronics (16): 20.
  23. ↑ Iovine, John (May 2000). "Kirlian Photography: Part 1". Poptronics (15): 15.
  24. ↑ "Photographer Robert Buelteman Shocks Flowers With 80,000 Volts Of Electricity". Huffington Post. 23 July 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
  25. ↑ Blennerhassett, Patrick (9 March 2009). "Electrifying photography". Victoria News.
  26. ↑ Puente, Veronica (9 March 2009). "Photographer Dick Lane gets really charged up about his work". Fort Worth Star-Telegram.
  27. ↑ Skrabanek, P. (1988). "Paranormal Health Claims". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 44 (4): 303–309. doi:10.1007/bf01961267. PMID   2834214. S2CID   29310075.
  28. ↑ Pehek, John O.; Kyler, Harry J. & Faust, David L. (15 October 1976). "Image Modulatic Corona Discharge Photography". Science. 194 (4262): 263–270. Bibcode:1976Sci...194..263P. doi:10.1126/science.968480. PMID   968480.
  29. ↑ Korotkov K.G., Krizhanovsky E.V. et al. (2004) The Dynamic of the Gas Discharge around Drops of Liquids. In book: Measuring Energy Fields: State of the Science, Backbone Publ.Co., Fair Lawn, USA, pp. 103–123.
  30. ↑ Korotkov K., Korotkin D. (2001) Concentration Dependence of Gas Discharge around Drops of Inorganic Electrolytes, Journal of Applied Physics, 89, 9, pp. 4732–4737.
  31. ↑ Korotkov K. G., Kaariainen P. (1998) GDV Applied for the Study of a Physical Stress in Sportsmens, Journal of Pathophysiology, Vol. 5., p. 53, Saint Petersburg.
  32. ↑ Katorgin, V. S., Meizerov, E. E. (2000) Actual Questions GDV in Medical Activity, Congress Traditional Medicine, Federal Scientific Clinical and Experimental Center of Traditional Methods of Treatment and Diagnosis, Ministry of Health, pp 452–456, Elista, Moscow, Russia.
  33. ↑ Stein, Gordon. (1993). Encyclopedia of Hoaxes. Gale Group. p. 183. ISBN   0-8103-8414-0
  34. ↑ Pilkington, Mark (5 February 2004). "Bodies of light". The Guardian. London.
  35. 1 2 Smith, Jonathan C. (2009). Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 283. ISBN   978-1-4051-8122-8.
  36. ↑ Randi, James (n.d.) [1995 (print)]. "Kirlian photography". An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural . Digital adaptation by Gilles-Maurice de Schryver. (Online ed.). James Randi Educational Foundation [St. Martin's Press (print)]. Retrieved 2008-10-14.
  37. ↑ Rachael Towne (2012-11-14). "What is Kirlian Photography? The Science and the Myth Revealed". Light Stalking.
  38. ↑ Rory Coker. "Kirlian Photography and the "Aura"". Department of Physics - University of Texas at Austin.
  39. ↑ Opalinski, John (Jan 1979). "Kirlian-type images and the transport of thin-film materials in high-voltage corona discharges". Journal of Applied Physics. 50 (1): 498–504. Bibcode:1979JAP....50..498O. doi:10.1063/1.325641.
  40. ↑ The Kirlian Technique: Controlling the Wild Cards. The Kirlian effect not only is explainable by natural processes; it also varies according to at least six physical parameters. Arleen J. Watkins and Williams S. Bickel, The Skeptical Inquirer 13:172-184, 1989.
  41. ↑ Carroll, Robert Todd (2003). The Skeptic's Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons. p. 446. ISBN   978-0-471-27242-7.
  42. ↑ Rubik, Beverly. "The human biofield and a pilot study of qigong" (PDF). Retrieved 26 August 2012.
  43. ↑ Tillery, G. Working Class Mystic: A Spiritual Biography of George Harrison (2011)

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.