The UAE is an authoritarian state.[3][5][6][7] The UAE has been described as a "tribal autocracy" where the seven constituent monarchies are led by tribal rulers in an autocratic fashion.[8] There are no democratically elected institutions, and there is no formal commitment to free speech.[9]
The discovery of oil in Abu Dhabi in 1958 and the country's subsequent oil wealth has defined its politics and economy, as well as shaped its foreign policy behavior.[10]
Executive branch
Administratively, the UAE is a federation of seven emirates, each with its own ruler. The pace of local government reform in each emirate is set primarily by the ruler. Under the provisional constitution of 1971, each emirate reserves considerable powers, including control over mineral rights (notably oil) and revenues. In this milieu, federal powers have developed slowly as each Emirate already had its own existing institutions of government prior to the country's official foundation. The Constitution of the United Arab Emirates separates powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Additionally, legislative and executive powers are divided into federal and emirate jurisdictions.[11]
The constitution of the United Arab Emirates established the positions of president (chief of state) and vice president and elected by the rulers of each of the emirates from within (the seven rulers comprise the Federal Supreme Council, which also has an elected chairman and a vice chairman each serving five-year terms); a Council of Ministers (cabinet), led by a prime minister (head of government); a supreme council of rulers; and a 40-member National Assembly (known as the Federal National Council), a consultative body whose members are partially appointed by the emirate rulers and partially elected; and an independent judiciary which includes the Federal Supreme Court. Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was president of the UAE from its foundation until his death on November 2, 2004. His oldest son, Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, was president until his death May 13, 2022. On 14 May 2022, Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan was elected as the UAE's new president after the death of Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan.[12]
Under federal authority, responsibilities include foreign affairs, security and defense, nationality and immigration issues, education, public health, currency, postal, telephone and other communications services, air traffic control, licensing of aircraft, labour relations, banking, delimitation of territorial waters and extradition of criminals. Issues excluded from Articles 120 and 121 of the Constitution are to be under the jurisdiction of respective emirates and are reaffirmed by Article 116 which states that: ‘the emirates shall exercise all powers not assigned to the federation by this Constitution’. This is further reiterated by Article 122, which stated that ‘the emirates shall have jurisdiction in all matters not assigned to the exclusive jurisdiction of the federation, in accordance with the provision of the preceding two articles’.[13]
Federal Supreme Council
The Federal Supreme Council consists of the individual rulers of the seven emirates. The president and vice-president are elected by the Supreme Council every five years. Although unofficial, the presidency is de facto hereditary to the Al Nahyan clan of Abu Dhabi and the prime minister post de facto is hereditary to the Al Maktoum clan of Dubai.
Article 47 of the UAE constitution defines the powers of the council's authority in formulation of general policy; legislation on all matters of state; ratification of federal laws and decrees, including those relating to budget and fiscal matters; ratification of international treaties and agreements; and appointment of the prime minister and Supreme Court judges.[14] Decisions are made by majority vote unless relating to substantive issues which require a two-thirds majority vote (five out of seven rulers), which must include Abu Dhabi and Dubai.[11] The Supreme Council also elects the Council of Ministers, while an appointed 40-member Federal National Council, drawn from all the emirates, reviews proposed laws.
The Cabinet of United Arab Emirates (also called the Council of Ministers, Arabic: مجلس الوزراء) is a collegial body presided over by the prime minister. It consists of 22 members and is also headed by a prime minister (chosen by the president with consultation). The federal cabinet is the executive authority for the federation. Under the supreme control of the president and supreme council, it manages all internal and foreign affairs of the federation under its constitutional and federal laws. The cabinet consists of cabinet's chairman (prime minister of UAE) and two deputies and ministers. The general secretariat shall be handled by the secretary general of the cabinet.[15]
The relative prestige and financial influence of each emirate is reflected in the allocation of positions in the federal government. The ruler of Abu Dhabi, whose emirate is the UAE's major oil producer, is president of the UAE. The ruler of Dubai, which is the UAE's commercial center and a former oil producer, is vice president and prime minister.
Since achieving independence in 1971, the UAE has worked to strengthen its federal institutions. Nonetheless, each emirate still retains substantial autonomy, and progress toward greater federal integration has slowed in recent years. A basic concept in the UAE government's development as a federal system is that a significant percentage of each emirate's revenues should be devoted to the UAE central budget.[16]
Although complexity of local government differs depending on size and development of each emirate, most (such as Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah and Ajman) have their own executive councils chaired by their respective rulers and possessing various departments reflective of federal ministries. Various autonomous agencies also exist such as the environment, tourism, culture and health agencies. Some emirates such as Abu Dhabi may also be divided into two municipalities (the Western and Eastern regions) and its main cities of Abu Dhabi and Al Ain are also administered by their own municipalities with a municipal council. Abu Dhabi and Sharjah also have their own national consultative councils with similar local duties and role as the Federal National Council.[16]
It has long been regional tradition for rulers to hold open discussions with their people, be they common, merchants or the elite. Often, this forum is held by the emirate rulers as well as senior family members. This open majlis, or consultation, is held periodically; however, a ruler may also appoint an emir, or wali, to whom concerns may be directed by the general population when necessary. This individual is often considered a leading tribal figure whose trust is placed by his tribe as well as the ruler.
Legislature
The Federal National Council (al-Majlis al-Watani al-Ittihadi) is the UAE's legislative body and consists of 40 members. The body only has advisory powers.[3] Twenty of the members are indirectly elected by the hand-picked 33% of Emirati citizens who have voting rights through an electoral college, while the other twenty are appointed by the rulers of each emirate.[17][18][19] According to Reuters, "the process of selecting the people who can either elect or be elected is opaque."[17]
Political parties are banned.
The FNC is the main consultative body in the UAE and has both a legislative and supervisory role accorded by the Constitution.
The Federal Judiciary is a constitutionally completely independent body (under Article 94) and includes the Federal Supreme Court and Courts of First Instance. Supreme Council of Rulers appoints the five judges headed by a president to the Supreme Court. The judges are responsible for deciding if federal laws are constitutional, mediating between inter-emirate disputes.[16] It also possesses the authority to try cases involving cabinet and senior federal officials. Although secular law is applied, the basis of legislation is Sharia (Islamic Law) and involves three of the four schools including (mainly) Maliki, but also the Hanbali and Shafi'i schools.[11]
Criticism
According to Jim Krane "The UAE’s rulers now maintain power and legitimacy by giving generous subsidies to their citizens, known as Emiratis, essentially buying their support. The majority is happy with this unspoken bargain, which holds sway in most of the Gulf. The sheikhs get public backing in return for improvements in living standards, including jobs, homes, health care, and education. Tribal autocracy is one of the oldest ways of organizing society and the only form of governance the UAE has ever known.[8]
On 2 April 2021, 91-year-old German philosopher Jürgen Habermas rejected the Sheikh Zayed Book Award worth 750,000 UAE dirhams prize money. Habermas earlier accepted the award, but later called it “a wrong decision,” which he corrected by rejecting it in April 2021. In a critical statement, Habermas cited his previous unawareness of the fact that the awarding institution had close connections with the existing political system of the country, which is a dictatorship as cited in a 2020 report published by Amnesty International.[21][22]
Menas Associates, a risk analysis firm, published a report highlighting escalating tensions between the UAE and Algeria, which accused the Emirates of collaborating with Morocco and Israel to undermine Algeria’s interest in Western Sahara. The Emirati alliance was also accused of working to destabilize the Sahel region. The association between the UAE, Morocco and Israel was viewed as a part of a broader conspiracy against Algerian interests. In a press conference, Louisa Hanoune accused the UAE of ‘collecting money to arm Morocco’ and using their investments in Algeria. Additionally, the Algerian President Abdelmadjid Tebboune claimed to have evidence proving that the UAE bribed Abdelaziz Bouteflika with around US$300 million for over 15 years in exchange of economic or political benefits. Meanwhile, the Emirati intelligence services claimed to have compromising files on Algeria’s destabilizing activities in Sahel. Algeria requested Kuwait to be a mediator to de-escalate tensions with the UAE.[23][24]
Political reform and Arab spring
In early 2007, the United Arab Emirates launched the 'UAE Government Strategy' for the years ahead, which covered twenty-one topics in six different sectors including social development, economic development, public sector development, justice and safety, infrastructure and rural areas development. The initiative is meant to reevaluate and advance these sectors towards top global standards by facilitating better continuous cooperation between federal and local governments with increased efficiency, training, Emiratisation, ministry empowerment, upgrading of services, improving civil service and legislation review.
Subsequently, in 2007–2008, Abu Dhabi announced the implementation of its own policy to modernise public administration practices and government performance. Plans for reevaluation were laid out in areas including economy, energy, tourism, health, education, labour, civil services, culture and heritage, good control, urban planning, transport, environment, health and safety, municipal affairs, police and emergency services, electronic government, women and legislative reform. Abu Dhabi hopes advancements towards global standards in these areas will improve the quality of services for its residents as well as attract future investment towards further modernising the Emirate.[16]
As of 2011, the country did not see the type of trouble other Arab countries saw during the Arab spring. There were minor protests, during which some people were arrested.[25]
The 2023 international investigation series Abu Dhabi Secrets revealed United Arab Emirates’ influence strategy to spy on citizens of 18 countries in Europe and beyond. Using a Swiss intelligence firm Alp Services the UAE intelligence services received the names of more than 1000 individuals and 400 organizations in 18 European countries, labelling them as part of the Muslim Brotherhood network in Europe.
Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was an Emirati royal, politician, philanthropist and the founder of the United Arab Emirates. Zayed served as the governor of Eastern Region from 1946 until he succeeded Sheikh Shakhbut as the ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1966, and then as the first president of the United Arab Emirates while he retained his position as Abu Dhabi's ruler from 1971 until his death in 2004. He is revered in the United Arab Emirates as the Waalid al-Ummah, credited for being the principal driving force behind uniting the seven Trucial States to found the Union of the United Arab Emirates.
Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was an Emirati politician and member of the Al Nahyan family who previously served as the 3rd Deputy Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates.
Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was the second president of the United Arab Emirates and the ruler of Abu Dhabi, serving from November 2004 until his death in May 2022.
The Abu Dhabi Investment Authority is a sovereign wealth fund owned by the Emirate of Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates, founded to invest funds on behalf of the Government of Abu Dhabi. It manages the emirate's excess oil reserves and is estimated to manage $968 billion. ADIA is one of the largest sovereign wealth funds in the world.
United Arab Emirates University (UAEU) (Arabic: جامعة الإمارات العربية المتحدة) is a public research university located in Al Ain, United Arab Emirates. Founded in 1976 by the country's first President, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, it is the oldest university in the United Arab Emirates and offers courses in various subjects up to post-graduation.
Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, popularly known by his initials as MBZ or MbZ, is an Emirati royal and politician who currently serves as the third president of the United Arab Emirates and the ruler of Abu Dhabi.
Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, often referred to as Sheikh Mansour, is an Emirati royal and politician who is the current vice president and deputy prime minister of the United Arab Emirates, as well as the minister of presidential court and member of the ruling family of Abu Dhabi. He is the brother of the current president of the UAE, Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, and is married to Sheikha Manal bint Mohammed Al Maktoum, daughter of Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the ruler of Dubai. A billionaire, he holds stakes in a variety of football clubs through City Football Group, including current Premier League winners Manchester City F.C.
The president of the United Arab Emirates, or the Raʾīs, is the head of state of the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
The Constitution of the United Arab Emirates provides a legal and political framework for the operation of the United Arab Emirates as a federation of seven emirates. The Constitution came into effect on 2 December 1971 and was permanently accepted in July 1996. Authored by Adi Bitar, a forming judge and legal advisor, the Constitution is written in 10 parts and has 152 Articles. The United Arab Emirates celebrates the formation of the Union as National Day on 2 December.
The Abu Dhabi Executive Council (ADEC) is the local executive authority of the Government of Abu Dhabi for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. It assists the ruler of Abu Dhabi in enforcing local and federal decrees and leading the Abu Dhabi government.
Sheikh Hamdan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan is an Emirati royal and politician. He is the ruler's representative in Al Dhafrah region of Abu Dhabi. Sheikh Hamdan is a son of the late Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, President of the United Arab Emirates and Emir of Abu Dhabi. Hamdan is the younger brother of both former UAE president Khalifa bin Zayed and the current president, Mohamed bin Zayed.
Tahnoun bin Mohammed Al Nahyan was an Emirati royal family member and businessman. He was the Ruler's Representative of the Eastern Region of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, the United Arab Emirates until his death on 1 May 2024. He was previously deputy chairman of the Executive Council of Abu Dhabi, chairman of the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company and deputy chairman of the Supreme Petroleum Council. In November 2018, the road from Al Ain to Dubai was renamed in his honor.
The United Arab Emirates has an embassy in London while the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland maintains an embassy in Abu Dhabi and is unique in having another Embassy in Dubai, albeit with His Majesty's Consul-General to Dubai and the Northern Emirates, as opposed to a separate British Ambassador. The UAE-UK relations have been described as a "special relationship".
The Federal Supreme Council, also known as the Supreme Council of Rulers, is the highest constitutional authority in the United Arab Emirates, being the highest legislative and executive body. It replaced the earlier Trucial States Council upon the formation of the United Arab Emirates in 1971 and establishes general policies and sanctions federal legislation. It is the highest federal authority in terms of hierarchy in the five federal authorities prescribed in the Constitution followed by the president and the vice president, federal cabinet, Federal National Council and the federal judiciary. It is made up of the rulers of each of the Emirates of the United Arab Emirates.
Qaṣr Al-Waṭan is the presidential palace of the United Arab Emirates, located in Abu Dhabi.
Events in the year 2021 in the United Arab Emirates.
The Government of Abu Dhabi is the subnational authority that governs the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, one of the seven constituent monarchies which make up the United Arab Emirates. The executive authority and head of the government is the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan. The ruler of Abu Dhabi appoints the Abu Dhabi Executive Council (ADEC), which is tasked with overseeing and managing the Abu Dhabi governmental departments and agencies.
Events in the year 2022 in the United Arab Emirates.
↑ Shah, Angela (July 18, 2011). "Archived copy". Time. Archived from the original on July 29, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2019– via content.time.com.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
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