Steelmaking

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Steel mill with two arc furnaces SteelMill interior.jpg
Steel mill with two arc furnaces

Steelmaking is the process of producing steel from iron ore and/or scrap. Steel has been made for millennia, and was commercialized on a massive scale in the 1850s and 1860s, using the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin process es.

Contents

Two major commercial processes are used. Basic oxygen steelmaking uses liquid pig-iron from a blast furnace and scrap steel as the main feed materials. Electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking uses scrap steel or direct reduced iron (DRI). Oxygen steelmaking has become more popular over time. [1]

Steelmaking is one of the most carbon emission-intensive industries. As of 2020, steelmaking was responsible for about 10% of greenhouse gas emissions. [2] The industry is seeking significant emission reductions. [3]

Steel

Steel is made from iron and carbon. Cast iron is a hard, brittle material that is difficult to work, whereas steel is malleable, relatively easily formed and versatile. On its own, iron is not strong, but a low concentration of carbon – less than 1 percent, depending on the kind of steel – gives steel strength and other important properties. Impurities such as nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and excess carbon (the most important impurity) are removed, and alloying elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium, carbon, and vanadium are added to produce different grades of steel.

History

Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, was one of the world's largest manufacturers of steel before its 2003 closure. Bethlehem Steel.jpg
Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, was one of the world's largest manufacturers of steel before its 2003 closure.

Early history

Early processes evolved during the classical era in China, India, and Rome. The earliest means of producing steel was in a bloomery.

For much of human history, steel was made only in small quantities. Early modern methods of producing steel were often labor-intensive and highly skilled arts. The Bessemer process and subsequent developments allowed steel to become integral to the global economy. [4]

China

A system akin to the Bessemer process originated in the 11th century in East Asia. [5] [6] Hartwell wrote that the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) innovated a "partial decarbonization" method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast. [7] Needham and Wertime described the method as a predecessor to the Bessemer process. [5] [8] [9] This process was first described government official Shen Kuo (1031–1095) in 1075, when he visited Cizhou. [7] Hartwell stated that the earliest center where this was practiced was perhaps the great iron-production district along the Henan–Hebei border during the 11th century. [7]

Europe

Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo described the Japanese use of the Bessemer process. MandelsloJAC1228.JPG
Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo described the Japanese use of the Bessemer process.

In the 15th century, the finery process, which shares the air-blowing principle with the Bessemer process, was developed in Europe.

High-quality steel was also made by the reverse process of adding carbon to carbon-free wrought iron, usually imported from Sweden. The manufacturing process, called the cementation process, consisted of heating bars of wrought iron together with charcoal for periods of up to a week in a long stone box. This produced blister steel. The blister steel was put in a crucible with wrought iron and melted, producing crucible steel. Up to 3 tons of (then expensive) coke was burnt for each ton of steel produced. When rolled into bars such steel was sold at £50 to £60 (approximately £3,390 to £4,070 in 2008) [11] a long ton. The most difficult and laborious part of the process was the production of wrought iron in finery forges in Sweden.

In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman developed the crucible technique for steel manufacture at his workshop in Handsworth, England. This process greatly improved the quantity and quality of steel production. It added three hours firing time and required large quantities of coke. In making crucible steel, the blister steel bars were broken into pieces and melted in small crucibles, each containing 20 kg or so. This produced higher quality metal, but increased the cost.

The Bessemer process reduced the time needed to make lower-grade steel to about half an hour while requiring only enough coke needed to melt the pig iron. The earliest Bessemer converters produced steel for £7 a long ton, although it initially sold for around £40 a ton.

Japan

The Japanese may have made use of a Bessemer-type process, as observed by 17th century European travellers. [10] Adventurer Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo described the process in a book published in English in 1669. He wrote, "They have, among others, particular invention for the melting of iron, without the using of fire, casting it into a tun done about on the inside without about half a foot of earth, where they keep it with continual blowing, take it out by ladles full, to give it what form they please." Wagner stated that Mandelslo did not visit Japan, so his description of the process is likely derived from other accounts. Wagner stated that the Japanese process may have been similar to the Bessemer process, but cautions that alternative explanations are plausible. [10]

Bessemer converter at Hogbo Bruk, Sandviken. Hogbo bruk 07.jpg
Bessemer converter at Högbo Bruk, Sandviken.

By the early 19th century the puddling process was widespread. At the time, process heat was too low to entirely remove slag impurities, but the reverberatory furnace made it possible to heat iron without placing it directly in the fire, offering some protection from impurities in the fuel source. Coal then began to replace charcoal as fuel.

The Bessemer process allowed steel to be produced without fuel, using the iron's impurities to create the necessary heat. This drastically reduced costs, but raw materials with the required characteristics were not always easy to find. [12]

Industrialization

Modern steelmaking began at the end of the 1850s when the Bessemer process became the first successful method of steelmaking in high quantity, followed by the open-hearth furnace.

Processes

Distribution of world steel production by methods Evolution convertisseurs.svg
Distribution of world steel production by methods

Modern steelmaking consists of three steps: primary, secondary, and tertiary.

Primary steelmaking involves smelting iron into steel. Secondary steelmaking involves adding or removing other elements such as alloying agents and dissolved gases. Tertiary steelmaking casts molten metal into sheets, rolls or other forms. Multiple techniques are available for each step. [13]

Primary step

Basic oxygen

Basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS)involves melting carbon-rich pig iron and converting it into steel. Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron oxidizes some of the carbon into CO−
 and CO
2, turning the iron into steel. Refractories (materials resistant to decomposition under high temperatures)—calcium oxide and magnesium oxide—line the smelting vessel to withstand the heat, corrosive molten metal, and slag. The chemistry is controlled to remove impurities such as silicon and phosphorus.

The basic oxygen process was developed in 1948 by Robert Durrer, as a refinement of the Bessemer converter that replaced air with (more efficient) pure oxygen. It reduced plant capital costs and smelting time, and increased labor productivity. Between 1920 and 2000, labour requirements decreased by a factor of 1000, to 3 man-hours per thousand tonnes.[ citation needed ] In 2013, 70% of global steel output came from the basic oxygen furnace. [14] Furnaces can convert up to 350 tons of iron into steel in less than 40 minutes, compared to 10–12 hours in an open hearth furnace. [15]

Electric arc

Electric arc furnace s make steel from scrap or direct reduced iron. A "heat" (batch) of iron is loaded into the furnace, sometimes with a "hot heel" (molten steel from a previous heat). Gas burners may assist with the melt. As in BOS, fluxes are added to protect the vessel lining and help impurity removal. The furnaces are typically 100 tonne-capacity that produce steel every 40 to 50 minutes. [15] This process allows larger alloy additions than the basic oxygen method. [16]

HIsarna

In HIsarna ironmaking, iron ore is processed almost directly into liquid iron or hot metal. The process is based around a cyclone converter blast furnace, which makes it possible to skip making the BOS-required pig iron pellets. Skipping this preparatory step makes the HIsarna process more energy-efficient and lowers the carbon footprint.[ citation needed ]

Hydrogen reduction

Direct-reduced iron can be produced from iron ore as it reacts with atomic hydrogen. Renewable hydrogen allows steelmaking without fossil fuels. Direct reduction occurs at 1,500 °F (820 °C). The iron is infused with carbon (from coal) in an electric arc furnace. Hydrogen electrolysis requires approximately 2600 kWh per ton of steel. Hydrogen production raises costs by an estimated 20–30% over conventional methods. [17] [18] [19]

Second step

The next step commonly uses ladles. Ladle operations include de-oxidation (or "killing"), vacuum degassing, alloy addition, inclusion removal, inclusion chemistry modification, de-sulphurisation, and homogenisation. It is common to perform ladle operations in gas-stirred ladles with electric arc heating in the furnace lid. Tight control of ladle metallurgy produces high grades of steel with narrow tolerances. [13]

Tertiary step

Carbon dioxide emissions

As of 2021, steelmaking was estimated to be responsible for around 11% of global CO
2 emissions and around 7% of greenhouse gas emissions. [20] [21] Making 1 ton of steel emits about 1.8 tons of CO
2. [22] The bulk of these emissions are from the industrial process in which coal provides the carbon that binds with the oxygen from the iron ore in a blast furnace in: [23]

Additional CO
2 emissions result from mining, refining and shipping ore, basic oxygen steelmaking, calcination, and the hot blast. Proposed techniques to reduce CO
2 emissions in the steel industry include reduction of iron ore using green hydrogen rather than carbon, and carbon capture and storage. [24]

Mining and extraction

Coal and iron ore mining are energy intensive, and damage their surroundings, leaving pollution, biodiversity loss, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions behind.

Blast furnace

Blast furnaces remove oxygen and trace elements from iron and add a tiny amount of carbon by melting the iron ore at 1,700 °C (3,090 °F) in the presence of ambient oxygen and coke (a type of coal). The oxygen from the ore is carried away by the carbon from the coke in the form of CO
2. The reaction:

Fe
2O
3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO
2(g)

The reaction occurs due to the lower (favorable) energy state of CO
2 compared to iron oxide, and the high temperatures are needed to achieve the reaction's activation energy. A small amount of carbon bonds with the iron, forming pig iron, which is an intermediary before steel, as its carbon content is too high – around 4%. [25]

Decarburization

To reduce the carbon content in pig iron and obtain the desired carbon content of steel, it is re-melted and oxygen is blown through in basic oxygen steelmaking. In this step, the oxygen binds with the undesired carbon, carrying it away in the form of CO
2 gas, an additional emission source. After this step, the carbon content in the pig iron is lowered sufficiently to obtain steel.

Calcination

Further CO
2 emissions result from the use of limestone, which is melted at high temperatures in a reaction called calcination, according to:

CaCO
3(s) → CaO(s) + CO
2(g)

The resulting CO
2 is an additional source of emissions. Calcium oxide (CaO, quicklime) can be used as a replacement to reduce emissions. [26] It acts as a chemical flux, removing impurities (such as sulfur or phosphorus (e.g. apatite or fluorapatite) [27] ) in the form of slag and lowers CO
2 emissions according to reactions such as:

SiO2 + CaO → CaSiO3

This use of limestone to provide a flux occurs both in the blast furnace (to obtain pig iron) and in the basic oxygen steel making (to obtain steel).

Hot blast

CO
2 emissions result from the hot blast, which increases blast furnace temperatures. The hot blast pumps hot air into the blast furnace. The hot blast temperature ranges from 900 to 1,300 °C (1,650 to 2,370 °F) depending on the design and condition. Oil, tar, natural gas, powdered coal and oxygen can be injected to combine with the coke to release additional energy and increase the percentage of reducing gases present, increasing productivity. Hot blast air is typically heated by burning fossil fuels, an additional emission source. [28]

Strategies for reducing carbon emissions

The steel industry produces 7-8% of anthropogenic CO
2 emissions and is one of the most energy-intensive industries. [29] [30] Emissions abatement and decarbonization strategies vary by manufacturing process. Options fall into three general categories: using a non-fossil energy source; increasing processing efficiency; and evolving the manufacturing process. They may be used individually or in combination.[ citation needed ]

"Green steel" describes steelmaking without fossil fuels. [31] Some companies that claim to produce green steel reduce, but do not eliminate, emissions. [32]

Australia

Australia produces nearly 40% of the world's iron ore. The Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) is funding research projects involving direct reduced ironmaking (DRI) to reduce emissions. Companies such as Rio Tinto, BHP, and BlueScope are developing green steel projects. [33]

Europe

European projects from HYBRIT, LKAB, Voestalpine, and ThyssenKrupp are pursuing strategies to reduce emissions. [34] HYBRIT claims to produce green steel. [32]

Top gas recovery in BF/BOF

Top gas from the blast furnace is normally expelled into the air. This gas contains CO
2, H2, and CO. The top gas can be captured, the CO
2 removed, and the reducing agents reinjected into the blast furnace.[ citation needed ] A 2012 study suggested that this process can reduce blast furnace CO
2 emissions by 75%, [35] while a 2017 study showed that emissions are reduced by 56.5% with carbon capture and storage, and reduced by 26.2% if only the recycling of the reducing agents is used. [36] To keep the carbon captured from entering the atmosphere, a method of storing it or using it would have to be found.

Another way to use the top gas is in a top recovery turbine which generates electricity, which thereby reduces external energy needs if electric arc smelting is used. [34] Carbon could also be captured from coke oven gases. As of 2022, separating the CO2 from other gases and components in the system, and the high cost of the equipment and infrastructure changes needed, have prevented adoption, but the emission reduction potential has been estimated to be up to 65% to 80%. [37] [34]

Hydrogen direct reduction

Hydrogen direct reduction (HDR) using hydrogen produced from emission-free power (green hydrogen) offers emission-free iron-making, because water is the only by-product of the reaction between iron oxide and hydrogen. [38]

As of 2021, ArcelorMittal, Voestalpine, and TATA had committed to using green hydrogen to smelt iron. [39] In 2024 the HYBRIT project in Sweden was using HDR. [40]

For the European Union, it is estimated that the hydrogen demand for HDR would require 180 GW of renewable capacity. [41]

Iron ore electrolysis

Another developing possible technology is iron ore electrolysis, where the reducing agent is electrons. [34] One method is molten oxide electrolysis. The cell consists of an inert anode, a liquid oxide electrolyte (CaO, MgO, etc.), and molten ore. When heated to ~1.600 °C, the ore is reduced to iron and oxygen. As of 2022 Boston Metal was at the semi-industrial stage for this process, with plans to commercialize by 2026. [42] [43]

The Siderwin research project involved Arcelormittal was testing a different type of electrolysis. [44] It operates at around 110 °C. [45]

Scrap-use in BF/BOF

Scrap steelmaking refers to steel that has either reached its end-of-life use, or is excess metal from the manufacture of steel components. Steel is easy to separate and recycle due to its magnetism. Using scrap avoids the emissions of 1.5 tons of CO
2 for every ton. [46] As of 2023, steel had one of the highest recycling rates of any material, with around 30% of the world's steel coming from recycled components. However, steel cannot be recycled endlessly,[ clarification needed ] and the recycling processes, using arc furnaces, use electricity. [29]

H2 enrichment in BF/BOF

In a blast furnace, iron oxides are reduced by a combination of CO, H2, and carbon. Only around 10% of the iron oxides are reduced by H2. With H2 enrichment, the proportion of iron oxides reduced by H2 is increased, consuming less carbon is consumed and emitting less CO
2. [47] This process can reduce emissions by an estimated 20%.[ citation needed ]

Other strategies

The HIsarna ironmaking process is a way of producing iron in a cyclone converter furnace without the pre-processing steps of choking/agglomeration, which reduces the CO
2 emissions by around 20%. [48]

One speculative idea is a project by SuSteel to develop a hydrogen plasma technology that reduces the ore with hydrogen at high operating temperatures. [34]

Biomass such as charcoal or wood pellets are a potential alternative blast furnace fuel, that does not involve fossil fuels, but still emits carbon. Emissions are reduced by 5% to 28%. [34]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steel</span> Alloy of iron and carbon

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with improved strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, steel is one of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world. Steel is used in buildings, as concrete reinforcing rods, in bridges, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture, and weapons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smelting</span> Use of heat and a reducing agent to extract metal from ore

Smelting is a process of applying heat and a chemical reducing agent to an ore to extract a desired base metal product. It is a form of extractive metallurgy that is used to obtain many metals such as iron, copper, silver, tin, lead and zinc. Smelting uses heat and a chemical reducing agent to decompose the ore, driving off other elements as gases or slag and leaving the metal behind. The reducing agent is commonly a fossil-fuel source of carbon, such as carbon monoxide from incomplete combustion of coke—or, in earlier times, of charcoal. The oxygen in the ore binds to carbon at high temperatures, as the chemical potential energy of the bonds in carbon dioxide is lower than that of the bonds in the ore.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bessemer process</span> Steel production method

The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass production of steel from molten pig iron before the development of the open hearth furnace. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pig iron</span> Iron alloy

Pig iron, also known as crude iron, is an intermediate good used by the iron industry in the production of steel. It is developed by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Pig iron has a high carbon content, typically 3.8–4.7%, along with silica and other dross, which makes it brittle and not useful directly as a material except for limited applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wrought iron</span> Iron alloy with a very low carbon content

Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to that of cast iron. It is a semi-fused mass of iron with fibrous slag inclusions, which give it a wood-like "grain" that is visible when it is etched, rusted, or bent to failure. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion resistant, and easily forge welded, but is more difficult to weld electrically.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slag</span> By-product of smelting ores and used metals

The general term slag may be a by-product or co-product of smelting (pyrometallurgical) ores and recycled metals depending on the type of material being produced. Slag is mainly a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide. Broadly, it can be classified as ferrous, ferroalloy or non-ferrous/base metals. Within these general categories, slags can be further categorized by their precursor and processing conditions. Slag generated from the EAF process can contain toxic metals, which can be hazardous to human and environmental health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blast furnace</span> Type of furnace used for smelting to produce industrial metals

A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce industrial metals, generally pig iron, but also others such as lead or copper. Blast refers to the combustion air being supplied above atmospheric pressure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Industrial processes</span> Process of producing goods

Industrial processes are procedures involving chemical, physical, electrical, or mechanical steps to aid in the manufacturing of an item or items, usually carried out on a very large scale. Industrial processes are the key components of heavy industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basic oxygen steelmaking</span> Steelmaking method

Basic oxygen steelmaking, also known as Linz-Donawitz steelmaking or the oxygen converter process, is a method of primary steelmaking in which carbon-rich molten pig iron is made into steel. Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron lowers the carbon content of the alloy and changes it into low-carbon steel. The process is known as basic because fluxes of calcium oxide or dolomite, which are chemical bases, are added to promote the removal of impurities and protect the lining of the converter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steel mill</span> Plant for steelmaking

A steel mill or steelworks is an industrial plant for the manufacture of steel. It may be an integrated steel works carrying out all steps of steelmaking from smelting iron ore to rolled product, but may also be a plant where steel semi-finished casting products are made from molten pig iron or from scrap.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Open-hearth furnace</span> A type of industrial furnace for steelmaking

An open-hearth furnace or open hearth furnace is any of several kinds of industrial furnace in which excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out of pig iron to produce steel. Because steel is difficult to manufacture owing to its high melting point, normal fuels and furnaces were insufficient for mass production of steel, and the open-hearth type of furnace was one of several technologies developed in the nineteenth century to overcome this difficulty. Compared with the Bessemer process, which it displaced, its main advantages were that it did not expose the steel to excessive nitrogen, was easier to control, and permitted the melting and refining of large amounts of scrap iron and steel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electric arc furnace</span> Type of furnace

An electric arc furnace (EAF) is a furnace that heats material by means of an electric arc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Puddling (metallurgy)</span> Step in the manufacture of iron

Puddling is the process of converting pig iron to bar (wrought) iron in a coal fired reverberatory furnace. It was developed in England during the 1780s. The molten pig iron was stirred in a reverberatory furnace, in an oxidizing environment to burn the carbon, resulting in wrought iron. It was one of the most important processes for making the first appreciable volumes of valuable and useful bar iron without the use of charcoal. Eventually, the furnace would be used to make small quantities of specialty steels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Direct reduced iron</span> Iron metal made from ore without use of a blast furnace

Direct reduced iron (DRI), also called sponge iron, is produced from the direct reduction of iron ore into iron by a reducing gas which contains elemental carbon and/or hydrogen. When hydrogen is used as the reducing gas no carbon dioxide is produced. Many ores are suitable for direct reduction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrometallurgy</span> Production of metals by electrolysis

Electrometallurgy is a method in metallurgy that uses electrical energy to produce metals by electrolysis. It is usually the last stage in metal production and is therefore preceded by pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical operations. The electrolysis can be done on a molten metal oxide which is used for example to produce aluminium from aluminium oxide via the Hall-Hérault process. Electrolysis can be used as a final refining stage in pyrometallurgical metal production (electrorefining) and it is also used for reduction of a metal from an aqueous metal salt solution produced by hydrometallurgy (electrowinning).

In metallurgy, refining consists of purifying an impure metal. It is to be distinguished from other processes such as smelting and calcining in that those two involve a chemical change to the raw material, whereas in refining the final material is chemically identical to the raw material. Refining thus increases the purity of the raw material via processing. There are many processes including pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical techniques.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cornwall Iron Furnace</span> Historic district in Pennsylvania, United States

Cornwall Iron Furnace is a designated National Historic Landmark that is administered by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission in Cornwall, Lebanon County, Pennsylvania in the United States. The furnace was a leading Pennsylvania iron producer from 1742 until it was shut down in 1883. The furnaces, support buildings and surrounding community have been preserved as a historical site and museum, providing a glimpse into Lebanon County's industrial past. The site is the only intact charcoal-burning iron blast furnace in its original plantation in the Western Hemisphere. Established by Peter Grubb in 1742, Cornwall Furnace was operated during the American Revolution by his sons Curtis and Peter Jr. who were major arms providers to George Washington. Robert Coleman acquired Cornwall Furnace after the Revolution and became Pennsylvania's first millionaire. Ownership of the furnace and its surroundings was transferred to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1932.

Deoxidization is a method used in metallurgy to remove the rest of oxygen content from previously reduced iron ore during steel manufacturing. In contrast, antioxidants are used for stabilization, such as in the storage of food. Deoxidation is important in the steelmaking process as oxygen is often detrimental to the quality of steel produced. Deoxidization is mainly achieved by adding a separate chemical species to neutralize the effects of oxygen or by directly removing the oxygen.

The HIsarna ironmaking process is a direct reduced iron process for iron making in which iron ore is processed almost directly into liquid iron (pig iron). The process combines two process units, the Cyclone Converter Furnace (CCF) for ore melting and pre-reduction and a Smelting Reduction Vessel (SRV) where the final reduction stage to liquid iron takes place. The process does not require the manufacturing of iron ore agglomerates such as pellets and sinter, nor the production of coke, which are necessary for the blast furnace process. Without these steps, the HIsarna process is more energy-efficient and has a lower carbon footprint than traditional ironmaking processes. In 2018 Tata Steel announced it has demonstrated that more than 50% CO2 emission reduction is possible with HIsarna technology, without the need for carbon capture technology.

In 2022, the U.S. was the third-largest producer of raw steel worldwide, after China and India, and ranked sixth in pig iron production. By November 2024, the industry produced over 74 million net tons annually.

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  36. ↑ Jin, Peng; Jiang, Zeyi; Bao, Cheng; Hao, Shiyu; Zhang, Xinxin (2017-02-01). "The energy consumption and carbon emission of the integrated steel mill with oxygen blast furnace". Resources, Conservation and Recycling. Resource Efficiency in Chinese Industry. 117: 58–65. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.07.008. ISSN   0921-3449.
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