Tamil Muslim

Last updated

Tamil Muslims
Muslims of tamilnadu.jpg
Tamil Muslims of Madras Presidency in 1830
Total population
c. 6 million[ citation needed ]
Regions with significant populations
Peninsular India, Maritime Southeast Asia, Arabian Peninsula, Western Europe, North America
Languages
Tamil
Religion
Islam (Sect - Sunni, Madhab - Hanafi, Shafi'i)
Related ethnic groups
Tamil people, Rowther, Marakkar, Labbay, Deccani Muslims, Sri Lankan Moors, Mappila Muslims, Arwi Muslims

Tamil Muslims are Tamils who practise Islam. The community is 6 million in India, primarily in the state of Tamil Nadu where 90% of the Muslim community identified themselves as Tamils. [1] [2] In Tamil Nadu, the majority of Tamil-speaking Muslims belong to the Rowthers Community while other Muslims live in coastal Tamil Nadu. There is a substantial diaspora, particularly in Southeast Asia, which has seen their presence as early as the 13th century. In the late 20th century, the diaspora expanded to Western Europe, Persian Gulf and North America. [3] These Tamil speaking Muslim communities in Sri Lanka were known as the Sonakar, which is derived from the term Yona, originally meaning a Moors. [4]

Contents

Ethnic identity

A typical minaret of a mosque in Tamil Nadu as seen here of Erwadi in Ramanathapuram District Erwadimasjid.jpg
A typical minaret of a mosque in Tamil Nadu as seen here of Erwadi in Ramanathapuram District

Though numerically nominal, the community is not homogeneous. Its origin is shaped by centuries trade between the Bay of Bengal and the Maritime Southeast Asia. By the 20th century, certain Tamil races began to be listed as social classes in official gazettes of different clans as Rowther, Marakkar, and Labbay. [5] [6] [7] [8]

Rowther

The Rowther community is a large population of muslim landowning community in the deltaic districts and Southern districts of Tamil Nadu. They were famous for their cavalry and horse trade. Politicians Quaid-e-Millath, Dewan Khan Bahadur Khalifulla Sahib (he was the first Muslim from Madras Presidency go to London for studies), Karim Ghani veteran freedom fighter and a close associate of Netaji Subash Chandra Bose, First woman judge of Supreme court of India Fathima Beevi, Poets like Umaru Pulavar, Kunangudi Masthan Sahib, Fourth Nakkeerar Gulam Kadir Navalar, Dawood Shah all are from Rowther Community. Rowthers constitute large part of the multi-ethnic Tamil Muslim community. [9] Ravuttars have also been found as Tamil polygars, zamindars and chieftains from the 16th to 18th centuries. [10] Traditionally, they were known as Maravars, but after the arrival of Islam, they transformed into horseback warriors, hence adopting the Tamil name Rowther. The traditional homelands of the Rowthers were in the interior of South Tamilakam. [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16]

Marakkayar

The Marakkar sect has been a maritime trading community in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu. One notable sea-faring merchant, as recorded in the Chronicles of Thondaiman, was Periya Thambi Nainar Marakkayar who is widely believed to be the first rupee millionaire. His son Seethakaathi, an altruist. B. S. Abdur Rahman was the first rupee billionaire Marakkayar. The 11th president of India A. P. J. Abdul Kalam was also born in Marakkayar fisherman family. [17] [18] [19]

Labbay

Similar to the Jewish Levite, the Labbay sect mainly engages in religious scholarship and avoids entrepreneurial activities. [19]

Economy

Tamil Bell with its inscription and translation Tamilbell1.JPG
Tamil Bell with its inscription and translation

In Tamil Nadu, the Tamil Muslim community is widely recognized for its diverse economic contributions, excelling in roles as rentiers, entrepreneurs, gemstone jewelers, and money changers. Notably, their economic activities have positioned them with GDP per capita incomes that surpass the state average. This socio-economic profile underscores the community's significant role in shaping the economic landscape of Tamil Nadu. [20]

Culture

Henna on a saree-clad bride's hands, Tamil Nadu, India. Henna on a Muslim bride's hands, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India.jpg
Henna on a saree-clad bride's hands, Tamil Nadu, India.

Legends and rituals

As a mark of modesty, women used to traditionally wear white thuppatti which is draped over their body on top of the saree, only revealing their face. However, due to cultural exchange and evolving trends, nowadays, most women wear an Abaya , which is usually black in color, paired with a headscarf, as Purdah.

Many visit Dargahs and Masjids on major life milestones like births, marriages and deaths [21] and recite mawlid.

Keelakarai Jumma Masjid, built in 7th century, with prominent Dravidian architecture, is one of the oldest mosques in Asia JummaMasjid02.jpg
Keelakarai Jumma Masjid, built in 7th century, with prominent Dravidian architecture, is one of the oldest mosques in Asia
Muhyuddin Andavar Mosque, in the village of Thiruppanandal, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu TPL Mosque.JPG
Muhyuddin Andavar Mosque, in the village of Thiruppanandal, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu

Rowther weddings have retained several Rajput traditions across generations like grooms going on a horseback procession. Surnames (identifying caste or tribe like Bohra, Bukhari, Chishti, Khan, Syed, Sahib, Shah, etc.) were positively discouraged by the community to avoid sectarianism in line with Dravidian reform movement of the 20th century.

Art

Music involves distinctively the Turkish daf and other percussion instruments.

Cuisine

Cuisine is a tell-tale syncretic mixture of Tamil and other Asian recipes. [22]

Biriyani, especially the ones made out of mutton, is the favorite in special occasions, particularly during wedding banquets and during Eid festivities. It is made either out of Basmati rice or by Jeeraga Samba rice. In a typical Tamil Muslim Wedding, a Mutton Biryani is served, along with Raitha, Brinjal Chutney, Chicken 65, with desserts usually being either Bread Halwa (which is a molten variant of the Hyderabadi Double ka Meetha and the North Indian and Pakistani Shahi Tukda) or Rava Kesari, along with Sweet Beeda. Phirni and 'Inippu Soru' while rarer, are also served as desserts in some weddings.

Ghee rice, served usually with a Dalcha or any other meat-based gravy is also a sought-after dish, usually prepared during Jummah or during other special occasions. In Deltaic Regions, for wedding ceremonies, a dish by the name of 'Anju Kari Soru' (roughly translates to 'Five Gravy Rice') is served. This spread includes Ghee rice, Dalcha, a Chicken-based gravy ('aanam' in Tamil), a Mutton-based gravy, a stir-fry made out of Mutton Liver, and a jam and banana combo mixed along with the rice as dessert. However, due to the rise of popularity in Biryani, this has increasingly become a rare spread. [23]

During the month of Ramadan, the 'Nonbu Kanji' is a staple for breaking the fast in Iftar, served for free in almost every masjid in the state. Other snacks and delicacies that are popular during this month are Vadai, Samosa, Sharbath -based beverages, and a jelly-like dessert made out of Agar-Agar ('China Grass', called 'Kadal Paasi' in Tamil) and milk.

Desserts include the Dumroot, a semolina ('rava' in Tamil) ghee cake with soft center and hard crust at the top, is popular in the deltaic households. [24] Watlappam, is another dessert, a pudding, popular in Marakkayer housholds. Dodol is another halwa-based dessert, originally persumed to have come from Southeast Asia. Along with Bread Halwa, Rava Kesari, Phirni,Inippu Soru, and Payasam made out of Vermicelli.

Other delicacies include, Idiyappam and Parotta , both of which are usually served with gravies (usually meat-based), usually had for either breakfast or for dinner. Chicken 65, a popular fried starter, usually had with Biryani, is widely believed to have been invented by Buhari Hotel (Anna Salai, Chennai 600 002), whose founder was from Tirunelveli. [25] Mini Samosas, stuffed with minced (kheema) meat are also popular snack items. Murtabak is a meat-based stuffed parotta dish, originally speculated to have been brought from Yemen, and which eventually spread to South East Asian countries.

During Eid, breakfast usually includes Idli or Idiyappam with a mutton gravy, and payasam.

Literature

Culture and literature are heavily influenced by the Qadiri flavour of Sufism. Their domain range from mystical to medical, from fictional to political, from philosophical to legal and spiritual. [26] [27]

The earliest literary works in the community could be traced to Palsanthmalai, a work of eight stanzas written in the 13th century. [28] In 1572, Seyku Issaku, better known as Vanna Parimala Pulavar, published Aayira Masala Venru Vazhankum Adisaya Puranam detailing the Islamic principles and beliefs in a FAQ format. In 1592, Aali Pulavar wrote the Mikurasu Malai. The epic Seerapuranam by Umaru Pulavar is dated to the 17th century [29] and still considered as the crowning achievement in canonical literature. [28] Other significant works of 17th century include Thiruneri Neetham by Sufi master Pir Mohammad, Kanakabhisheka Malai by Seyku Nainar (alias Kanakavirayar), Tirumana Katchi by Sekathi Nainar and the Iraqi war ballad Sackoon Pataippor. [30]

Nevertheless, an independent identity evolved only in the last quarter of the 20th century triggered by the rise of Dravidian politics as well as the introduction of new mass communications and lithographic technologies. [31] [32] The world's first Tamil Islamic Literature Conference was held in Trichy in 1973. In early 2000s, the Department of Tamil Islamic Literature was set up in the University of Madras. [33] Modern notable writers include Mu. Metha and Pavalar Inqulab, [34]

Role in politics

Pre-independence

Kalifulla Shahib served as the minister for public works in the Cabinet of Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu in 1937. He was sympathetic to the cause of Periyar E. V. Ramasamy and his Self-Respect Movement. He spoke against the introduction of compulsory Hindi classes in the Madras legislature and participated in the anti-Hindi agitations. He was a lawyer by profession and was known by the honorifics Khan Bahadur . He became the Dewan of Pudukottai after withdrawal from political work. Mohammad Usman was the most prominent among the early political leaders of the community. In 1930, Jamal Mohammad Rowther became the president of the Madras Presidency Muslim League. [35] Yakub Hasan Sait served as a minister in the Rajaji administration. Karim Ghani, veteran freedom fighter and a close associate of Subash Chandra Bose, who hailed from Ilayangudi, served as Information Minister in Netaji ministry during the 1930s.

Post-independence

Since the late 20th century, politicians like Muhammad Ismail Rowther (founder of Indian Union Muslim League) and Dawood Shah advocated Tamil to be made an official language of India due to its antiquity in parliamentary debates [36] The community was united in a single political party under Quaid-e-Millath presidency for 27 years keeping rabble-rousers away until his death in 1972. His support was invaluable for ruling parties in the state, as well as in the Centre. He was instrumental in framing and obtaining the minority status and privileges for minorities in India thus safeguarding the Constitution of India. His newspaper Urimaikkural was a very popular daily.

S. M. Muhammed Sheriff was the first elected IUML MP from Tamil Nadu. He produced clear documentary evidence that Kachchatheevu belonged to India. During the Emergency, he was the advisor to the Governor. M. M. Ismail became Chief Justice in 1979 and was sworn in as Acting Governor of Tamil Nadu in 1980. As Kamban Kazhagam president, he organized literary festivals, that focused on classical Tamil literature. Justice S. A. Kader who was the Judge of Madras High Court during 1983-89 became the President of Tamil Nadu State Government Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission on retirement. [37] In the early 1990s, the Indian National League split from the IUML. [38] The non-denominational social reform movements (called Ghair Muqallid) began to take the front stage (to fight superstition creep) spearheaded by P. Jainulabdeen further weakening the IUML and causing unrest among community elders who preferred status quo. Nevertheless, the Tamil Nadu Muslim Munnetra Kazagham was constituted in 1995. This non-profit organization quickly became popular and assertive among the working class youth.

21st century

In 2009, the Manithaneya Makkal Katchi, the political arm of TMMK was formed. The TMMK itself split to form the break-away organisation Tamil Nadu Thowheed Jamath soon. In 2011, MMK won 2 of 3 contested Assembly seats viz. Ambur (A. Aslam Basha) and Ramanathapuram (M. H. Jawahirullah). Broadly speaking, the community tends to support laissez faire and free trade; and have been unimpressed by Communism as a public policy though fringe groups often called for affirmative action in the last quarter of the 20th century. [39] New generation of leaders like Daud Sharifa Khanum have been active in pioneering social reforms like independent mosques for women. [40] [41] [42] [43] MLAs and MPs such as A. Anwar Rhazza, J. M. Aaroon Rashid, Abdul Rahman, Jinna, Khaleelur Rahman, S. N. M. Ubayadullah, Hassan Ali and T. P. M. Mohideen Khan are found across all major Dravidian political parties like DMK, DMDK and AIADMK, as well as national parties like the INC.

Demographics

Notable Tamil Muslims

See also

Related Research Articles

Indian cuisine consists of a variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to the Indian subcontinent. Given the diversity in soil, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these cuisines vary substantially and use locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pilaf</span> Rice dish

Pilaf, pilav or pilau is a rice dish, usually sautéed, or in some regions, a wheat dish, whose recipe usually involves cooking in stock or broth, adding spices, and other ingredients such as vegetables or meat, and employing some technique for achieving cooked grains that do not adhere to each other.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biryani</span> Rice-based dish from Indian subcontinent

Biryani is a mixed rice dish from Iran its mainly popular in South Asia & Iran. It is made with rice, some type of meat and spices. To cater to vegetarians, in some cases, it is prepared by substituting vegetables or paneer for the meat. Sometimes eggs and/or potatoes are also added.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malayalis</span> Ethnic group

The Malayali people are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group originating from the present-day state of Kerala & Union Territory of Lakshadweep in India, occupying its southwestern Malabar coast. They form the majority of the population in Kerala and Lakshadweep. They are predominantly native speakers of the Malayalam language, one of the six classical languages of India. The state of Kerala was created in 1956 through the States Reorganisation Act. Prior to that, since the 1800s existed the Kingdom of Cochin, the Kingdom of Travancore, Malabar District, and South Canara of the British India. The Malabar District was annexed by the British through the Third Mysore War (1790–92) from Tipu Sultan. Before that, the Malabar District was under various kingdoms including the Zamorins of Calicut, Kingdom of Tanur, Arakkal kingdom, Kolathunadu, Valluvanad, and Palakkad Rajas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ilaiyangudi</span> Town panchayat in Tamil Nadu, India

Ilaiyangudi is a town in Sivaganga district, Tamil Nadu state, India. It is the center of government for the surrounding tehsils. The town has a predominant Tamil Rowthers population. The Tamil Muslim community was traditionally engaged in Business. Bazaar(Kadai Theru) is the central business district.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tamil cuisine</span> Culinary traditions of the Tamil people

Tamil cuisine is a culinary style of Tamil people originating in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu and neighboring Sri Lanka. Meats, along with rice, legumes, and lentils, are popular. Dairy products and tamarind are used to provide sour flavors. On special occasions, traditional Tamil dishes are served in a traditional manner, using banana leaves in place of utensils. After eating, the banana leaves are then used as a secondary food for cattle. A typical breakfast meal consists of idli or dosa with chutney. Lunch includes rice, sambar, curd, kuzhambu, and rasam.

The Marakkars are a South Asian Muslim community found in parts of the Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Sri Lanka. The Marakkars speak Malayalam in Kerala and Tamil in Tamil Nadu and both Tamil and Sinhala in Sri Lanka.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in Kerala</span> Overview of Islam in the Indian state of Kerala

Islam arrived in Kerala, the Malayalam-speaking region in the south-western tip of India, through Middle Eastern merchants. The Indian coast has an ancient relation with West Asia and the Middle East, even during the pre-Islamic period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hyderabadi cuisine</span> Native cooking style of Hyderabad, India

Hyderabadi cuisine, also known as Deccani cuisine, is the native cooking style of the Hyderabad, Telangana, India. The haute cuisine of Hyderabad began to develop after the foundation of the Bahmani Sultanate, and the Qutb Shahi dynasty centered in the city of Hyderabad promoted the native cuisine along with their own. Hyderabadi cuisine had become a princely legacy of the Nizams of Hyderabad as it began to further develop under their patronage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rowther</span> South Indian predominant Muslim community

The Rowther are originally a Tamil community from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. they were converted to Islam by the preacher Nathar Shah. Even after conversion they retained their caste name. They were elite cavalrymen of the Chola and Pandya kingdoms. They were traditionally a martial clan like the Maravars, and constitute large part of the multi-ethnic Tamil Muslim community. Rowthers have also been found as Tamil polygars, zamindars and chieftains from the 16th to 18th centuries. The traditional homelands of the Rowthers were in the interior of Southern Tamilakam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">M. Muhammad Ismail</span> Indian politician (1896–1972)

M. Muhammad Ismail was an Indian politician and social worker from southern Indian state Tamil Nadu. he was a founder of the Indian Union Muslim League party after the partition of British India. He was popularly known in Tamil Nadu and Kerala as the "Quaid-e-Millat". Ismail was a member of Madras Legislative Assembly and Leader of the Opposition (1946—52). He was also a member (1948—50) of the Constituent Assembly, the drafting body of the constitution of India. He was also a member of Rajya Sabha (1952—58) and Lok Sabha.

Melapalayam is a neighborhood of Tirunelveli City in Tamil Nadu, India situated on the east bank of the Thamirabarani River. The neighborhood's name comes from its location west of Palayamkottai. Eighty percent of the population is Muslim.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malaysian Indian cuisine</span> Cuisine of ethnic Indian communities of Malaysia

Malaysian Indian cuisine, or the cooking of the ethnic Indian communities in Malaysia, consists of adaptations of authentic dishes from India, as well as original creations inspired by the diverse food culture of Malaysia. Because the vast majority of Malaysia's Indian community are of South Indian descent, and are mostly ethnic Tamils who are descendants of immigrants from a historical region which consists of the modern Indian state of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka's Northern Province, much of Malaysian Indian cuisine is predominantly South Indian inspired in character and taste. A typical Malaysian Indian dish is likely to be redolent with curry leaves, whole and powdered spice, and contains fresh coconut in various forms. Ghee is still widely used for cooking, although vegetable oils and refined palm oils are now commonplace in home kitchens. Before a meal it is customary to wash hands as cutlery is often not used while eating, with the exception of a serving spoon for each respective dish.

Zambar is a restaurant in Gurgaon, Haryana, northern India, which serves South Indian cuisine. Zambar is situated on the third floor of Ambience Mall in Gurgaon, in a restaurant which is shaped like a long boathouse.

Kulasekharapatnam is a town in the Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu, India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thalassery cuisine</span> Culinary traditions of Thalassery, Kerala

The Thalassery cuisine refers to the distinct cuisine from Thalassery city of northern Kerala, which has blended in Arabian, Persian, Indian and European styles of cooking as a result of its long history as a maritime trading post.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Street food of Chennai</span> Food sold by street vendors in Chennai, India

Street food, as in other areas of India, are popular in Chennai, despite the common belief in India that street food is unhealthy. The idly sambhar is a popular dish, which is served as breakfast or dinner. Apart from regular South Indian street food, the city's streets are also filled with several North Indian street food outlets, most of them established by North Indian migrants themselves. Gujarati and Burmese are also available. Street food in Chennai is so popular that a game had developed based on the TV show The Amazing Race where contestants have to follow clues to street-food spots in the city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian Indonesian cuisine</span> Cuisine of the people of Indian-Indonesians

Indian Indonesian cuisine is characterized by the mixture of Indian cuisine with local Indonesian-style. This cuisine consists of adaptations of authentic dishes from India, as well as original creations inspired by the diverse food culture of Indonesia. Indian influence can be observed in Indonesia as early as the 4th century. Following the spread of Islam to Indonesia and trading, Muslim Indian as well as Arab influences made their way into Indonesian cuisine. Examples include Indian biryani, murtabak, curry and paratha that influenced Acehnese, Minangkabau, Malay, Palembangese, Betawi and Javanese cuisine.

K. S. G. Haja Shareef was an Indian industrialist and politician from Tamil Nadu. Shareef served in the Madras Legislative Assembly and its successor body, the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly, from 1957 to 1967 and from 1980 to 1984. A member of the Indian National Congress, Shareef was the Leader of the Opposition in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly from 1983 until 1984.

References

  1. Mines, Mattison (1978). "Social stratification among the Muslims in Tamil Nadu, South India". In Ahamed, Imtiaz (ed.). Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India. Manohar.
  2. Muslim MerchantsThe Economic Behaviours of the Indian Muslim Community, Shri Ram Centre for Industrial Relations and Human Resources, New Delhi, 1972
  3. Sayeed, A. R. (1977). "Indian Muslims and some Problems of Modernisation". In Srinivas, M. N. (ed.). Dimensions of Social Change in India. p. 217.
  4. Shaik Abdullah Hassan Mydin1 and Mohammed Siraaj Saidumasudu, The Changing Identities of the Tamil Muslims from the Coromandel Coast to Malaysia: An Etymological Analysis https://www.scitepress.org/Papers/2018/88919/88919.pdf
  5. Tamil Muslims dominate restaurant industry in Malaysia Archived 2010-02-15 at the Wayback Machine
  6. Appadurai, Arjun (1977). "Kings, Sects and Temples in South India, 1350-1700 A.D". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. XIV (1).
  7. Hiltebeitel, A (1999) Rethinking India's oral and classical epics. p. 376 (11). University of Chicago Press. ISBN   0-226-34050-3
  8. Zafar Anjum, Indians Roar In The Lion City. littleindia.com
  9. Singh, K. S., ed. (1998). People of India: India's communities. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. pp. 3001–3002. ISBN   0-19-563354-7. OCLC   40849565.
  10. Hiltebeitel, Alf (1988–1991). The cult of Draupadī. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 13–14, 102. ISBN   0-226-34045-7. OCLC   16833684.
  11. More, J. B. Prashant (2004). Muslim Identity, Print Culture, and the Dravidian Factor in Tamil Nadu. Orient Blackswan. ISBN   978-81-250-2632-7.
  12. Rājāmukamatu, Je (2005). Maritime History of the Coromandel Muslims: A Socio-historical Study on the Tamil Muslims 1750-1900. Director of Museums, Government Museum.
  13. Jairath, Vinod K. (3 April 2013). Frontiers of Embedded Muslim Communities in India. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-136-19679-9.
  14. Sarandib: An Ethnological Study of the Muslims of Sri Lanka. Asiff Hussein. 2007. ISBN   978-955-97262-2-7.
  15. https://www.india.com/author/educationuser. "Current Affairs 2015: From a son of fisherman to the Post of President: APJ Abdul Kalam - India.com". www.india.com. Retrieved 21 June 2023.{{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help); External link in |last= (help)
  16. Sanjay Subramanian, The Political Economy of Commerce, Southern India 1500 – 1650, New York 1990
  17. 1 2 Jean-Baptiste, Prashant More (1991). "The Marakkayar Muslims of Karikal, South India". Journal of Islamic Studies. 2: 25–44. doi:10.1093/jis/2.1.25. PMC   355923 . PMID   15455059 via JSTOR, Oxford Academic Journals.
  18. Tyabji, Amina (1991). "Minority Muslim Businesses in Singapore". In Ariff, Mohamed (ed.). The Muslim Private Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 60. ISBN   978-9-81301-609-5.
  19. Stephen F. Dale, Recent Researches on the Islamic Communities of Peninsular India, Studies in South India, ed. Robert E. Frykenbers and Paulin Kolenda (Madras 1985)
  20. Business Line Archived 15 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  21. Food Area Tamil (24 February 2021). திருவாரூர் புது மாப்பிள்ளை ஸ்பெஷல் 5 கறி சோறு | Delta Food Exploring | 5 Curry Rice | Jabbar Bhai . Retrieved 17 July 2024 via YouTube.
  22. Dumroot is a speciality of delta cuisine>
  23. "A gastronomic journey with biryani". The Hindu. 12 August 2014. ISSN   0971-751X . Retrieved 17 July 2024.
  24. Islam in Tamilnadu: Varia. (PDF) Retrieved on 2012-06-27.
  25. 216th year commemoration today: Remembering His Holiness Bukhary Thangal Sunday Observer – 5 January 2003. Online version accessed on 2009-08-14
  26. 1 2 Narayanan, Vasudha (2003). "Religious Vocabulary and Regional Identity: A Study of the Tamil Cirappuranam ('Life of the Prophet')". In Eaton, Richard M. (ed.). India's Islamic Traditions, 711-1750. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 393–408. ISBN   0-19-568334-X.
  27. The Diversity in Indian Islam. International.ucla.edu. Retrieved on 2012-06-27.
  28. N. A. Ameer Ali, Vallal Seethakkathiyin Vaazhvum Kaalamum, Madras 1983, p. 30-31, Ka. Mu. Sheriff, Vallal Seethakkathi Varalaru, 1986, pp. 60–62, M. Idris Marakkayar, Nanilam Potrum Nannagar Keelakkarai, 1990
  29. Tamil Muslim identity. Hindu.com (2004-10-12). Retrieved on 2012-06-27.
  30. J.B.P.More (1 January 2004). Muslim Identity, Print Culture, and the Dravidian Factor in Tamil Nadu. Orient Blackswan. pp. 1–. ISBN   978-81-250-2632-7 . Retrieved 27 June 2012.
  31. Islamic Voice
  32. Irandaam Jaamangalin Kathai. Hindu.com. Retrieved on 2012-06-27.
  33. J.B.P.More (1 January 1997). Political Evolution of Muslims in Tamilnadu and Madras 1930–1947. Orient Blackswan. pp. 116–. ISBN   978-81-250-1192-7 . Retrieved 27 June 2012.
  34. Tamil Muslim Periyar Archived 30 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine Thatstamil.oneindia.in. Retrieved on 2012-06-27
  35. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  36. Tamil Nadu / Chennai News : Indian National League State unit dissolved. The Hindu (2011-01-21). Retrieved on 2012-06-27.
  37. Susan Bayly, Saints, Goddesses and Kings — Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, Cambridge, 1989
  38. Biswas, Soutik. (2004-01-27) World's first Masjid for Women. BBC News. Retrieved on 2012-06-27.
  39. Pandey, Geeta. (2005-08-19) World | South Asia | Women battle on with mosque plan. BBC News. Retrieved on 2012-06-27.
  40. S.T.E.P.S.
  41. Taking on patriarchy

Further reading