The Umbri were an Italic people of ancient Italy.[1] A region called Umbria still exists and is now occupied by Italian speakers. It is somewhat smaller than the ancient Umbria.
Most ancient Umbrian cities were settled in the 9th-4th centuries BC on easily defensible hilltops. Umbria was bordered by the Tiber and Nar rivers and included the Apennine slopes on the Adriatic. The ancient Umbrian language is a branch of a group called Oscan-Umbrian, which is related to the Latino-Faliscan languages.[2]
Origins
Herodotus, writing in the 5th-century BCE, provides the earliest literary mention of the Umbrian people, stating that they inhabited the region prior to the supposed migration of the Tyrrhenians from Lydia and into Italy.[3][4] Ancient Roman writers thought the Umbri to be of Gaulish origin;[5]Cornelius Bocchus wrote that they were descended from an ancient Gaulish tribe.[6]Plutarch wrote that the name might be a different way of writing the name of a northern European tribe, the Ambrones, and that both ethnonyms were cognate with "King of the Boii".[7] However, both Greek and Roman scholars sometimes conflated Celtic and Germanic peoples. The historical Ambrones originated in or around Jutland, were apparently a Germanic-speaking people, and no evidence that they had a connection to the Celtic peoples, per se, has been found. Livy suggested that the Insubres, another Gaulish tribe, might be connected; their Celtic name Isombres could possibly mean "Lower Umbrians," or inhabitants of the country below Umbria.[8] Similarly Roman historianCato the Elder, in his masterpiece Origines, defines the Gauls as "the progenitors of the Umbri".[9] The Ambrones are also mentioned, with the Lombards and the Suebi, among the tribes of Northern Europe in the poem Widsith.[10][11][12]
Pliny the Elder wrote concerning the folk-etymology of the name:
The Umbrian people are thought the oldest in Italy; they are believed to have been called Ombrii (here, "the people of the thunderstorm," after ὅμβρος, "thunderstorm") by the Greeks because they survived the deluge (literally "the inundation of the lands by thunderstorms, imbribus). The Etruscans vanquished 300 Umbrian cities.[1]
Ancient Greek historians considered the Umbri as the ancestors of the Sabellian people, namely the Sabines and the Samnites, and the tribes which sprung from them, as the Marsi, Marrucini, Peligni, Picentes, Hirpini, and others.[13][14][15] Their expansion was in a southward direction, according to the rite of Ver Sacrum.[16]
Culture
Lepontic inscriptions have also been found in Umbria,[17] in the area which saw the emergence of the Terni culture, which had strong similarities with the Celtic-speaking cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène.[18] The Umbrian necropolis of Terni, which dates back to the 10th century BC, was virtually identical in every aspect to the Celtic necropolis of the Golasecca culture.[19]
During the 6th–4th centuries BC, Umbrian communities constructed rural sanctuaries in which they sacrificed to the gods.[20] Umbrian sanctuaries were usually established on mountains, often the highest mountain peak within the surrounding area.[21] Though, other sanctuary sites are known to have existed near lakes, caves, hills, hillforts, or settlements.[22][23] Various Umbrian sanctuaries appear to be situated in areas that were previously home to other structures, usually during the Bronze Age around the 12th-11th centuries BCE.[24] It is likely that the reoccupation of such spaces was premised on either distant memories of their former significance or because their age had conferred a sense of importance onto them.[24] The ancient sanctuary to Venus (or her Umbrian equivalent) at Hispellum was an important sacred place for Umbrian tribes from the 3rd c. BC and the site was monumentalized in the Republican age (2nd-1st century BC).[25]
Umbrian sanctuaries generally varied significantly in construction technique, with each individual cult site likely designed—not according to any standardized model—but instead to best satisfy the needs of the local populace.[26] Unlike the Latins and the Etruscans, who—during the 6th-century BCE—developed unique architectural styles that became characteristic of religious sites within their cultures, the Umbrians primarily utilized open-air spaces largely devoid of any manmade structures as their sacred spaces.[26] Nevertheless, there are still scant traces of architectural constructions at various Umbrian ritual areas. Multiple Umbrian sites contained human-dug pits carved into bedrock, although the exact purpose of this feature likely differed between each site. In Monte Moro, the pit may have functioned to store food or gather rainwater, while the pit in Colle Mori—though possibly a well—may have provided more ritualistic services. Likewise, the pits at Monte Acuto and Monte Torre Magiore were also likely involved in religious activity: The pit at Monte Acuto was probably utilized in sacrifices and the pit at Monte Torre Magiore likely served as the foundation for the sanctuary. Moreover, in certain sacred spaces, manmade structures may have been used to define the territorial boundaries of the site. For instance, a limestone platform demarcated the borders of the sanctuary at Monte Ansciano and the sanctuaries of Monte Acuto and Colle Mori both outline their territories utilizing a drystone wall.[26]
Typological distribution of votive figurines across Umbrian sanctuaries
Large quantities of votive objects have been uncovered at Umbrian sites, perhaps indicating that votive dedication was a ubiquitous aspect of Umbrian religious life.[27] Votive objects were perhaps created and sold at the sanctuary sites themselves, as the remains of metal slags from Grotta Bella and Monte Torre Maggiore attest to the local manufacture of metallic substances.[28] Typically, the votives were composed of bronze, although several examples of lead votives have been uncovered at Pantanelli and Grotta Bella.[29] Spikes or spurs were often attached to the bottoms of votive objects, which may indicate that they were fixed to some object for display.[30] This theory is further corroborated by the discovery of nails at multiple Umbrian sanctuaries, which—according to the archaeologist Arianna Pavia—may have been used to connect wooden planks together or to attach these planks to other structures.[31] Pavia further suggests that certain figurines forged from bronze or lead sheets may have been suspended from holes pierced through the metallic surface, citing the presence of one such bronze sheet from Monte San Pancrazio that contains a hole within its surface.[32]
Umbrian votives often depicted human warriors or individuals with outstretched arms, who were presumably supplicating a deity.[33] Animal depictions were also common in Umbrian votive art, perhaps due to some association with sacrificial animals or pastoralism.[29] Agrarian themes may likewise underlie the warrior figurines, which themselves may be associated with Mars—a deity often connected to agriculture in Italic religion.[29] It was also common for Umbrian votive artifacts to portray body parts, perhaps due to a belief that such depictions could induce certain medical benefits.[27] Arianna Pavia argues that Umbrian votives may have served as metonymical representations of broader concepts pertaining to daily life within Umbrian society. According to this theory, the anatomical votives functioned as figurative depictions of human individuals and the warrior votives were associated with protection from any potential threats.[34]
Most votives were of relatively simple construction, perhaps indicating that they were deposited by less affluent individuals, whereas the few elaborately crafted bronzes may have been provided by higher-status persons. However, the metal utilized to produce the votives was itself usually valuable, which may indicate that they were all left by wealthy individuals who each may have dedicated numerous votive offerings.[27] Alternatively, Pavia argues that the extreme rarity of more elaborate figurines may indicate that the deposition of ostentatious votives was generally avoided in Umbrian culture, even if the suppliant could afford such expenses.[35] Regardless, if the ceremonial offering of votives was available to every Umbrian, even those of low status, then the ritual may have functioned as a communal activity and therefore may have reinforced a shared sense of group identity.[35] Furthermore, Pavia notes that numerous Umbrian sanctuaries contain types of votive figurine exclusive to that sanctuary.[35] For instance, the site of Monte Santo included several statuettes likely produced by a local artisan that, although somewhat similar to more common styles of Umbrian figurine, were still largely unique.[36] According to Pavia, Umbrian sanctuaries may have adopted distinctive styles of votives to assert their own individuality as a community among the broader Umbrian populace.[35]
Umbrian deities include Feronia, Valentia, Minerva Matusia and Clitumnus. The Iguvine Tablets were discovered in 1444 at Scheggia, near Gubbio, Italy. Composed during the 2nd or 3rd centuries BC, they describe religious rituals involving animal sacrifice.[20] The modern Festival of Ceri, celebrated every year in Gubbio on May 15 in honor of Bishop Ubald or Ubaldo of Gubbio (1084-1160), shares certain features with the rites described in aforementioned Iguvine tables mentioned above, and so may be a survival of that ancient pre-Christian custom. It is also celebrated in Jessup, PA, a town with a large number of immigrants from the Gubbio area, as Saint Ubaldo Day.[37]
While we have little direct information about ancient Umbrian political structure, it is fairly clear that two men held the supreme magistracy of uhtur and were responsible for supervising rituals. Other civic offices included the marone, which had a lower status than uhtur (closely related to Latin auctor whence English "author"), and a religious position named kvestur (cognate to or a borrowing of Latin Quaestor). The Umbrian social structure was divided into distinct groups probably based upon military rank. During the reign of Augustus, four Umbrian aristocrats became senators. Emperor Nerva’s family was from Umbria.[38]
According to Guy Jolyon Bradley, " The religious sites of the region have been thought to reveal a society dominated by agricultural and pastoral concerns, to which town life came late in comparison to Etruria."[38]
Roman influence
Throughout the 9th-4th centuries BC, imported goods from Greece and Etruria were common, as well as the production of local pottery.
The Romans first made contact with Umbria in 310 BC and settled Latin colonies there in 299 BC, 268 BC and 241 BC. They had completed their conquest of Umbria by approximately 260 BC. The Via Flaminia linking areas of Umbria was complete by 220 BC. Cities in Umbria also contributed troops to Rome for its many wars. Umbrians fought under Scipio Africanus in 205 BC during the Second Punic War. The Praetorian Guard recruited from Etruria and Umbria. The Umbri played a minor role in the Social War and as a result were granted citizenship in 90 BC. Roman veterans were settled in Umbria during the reign of Augustus.[38]
The Umbrians descend from the culture of Terni, protohistoric facies of southern Umbria. The towns of Chianciano and Clusium (Umbrian: Camars) near modern Arezzo contain traces of Umbrian habitation dating to the 7th or 8th centuries BC. Terni (in Latin: Interamna Nahars) was the first important Umbrian center. Its population was called with the name of Umbri Naharti. They were the largest, organized and belligerent tribe of the Umbrians and populated compactly across the basin of Nera River. This people is quoted 8 times in the Iguvine Tablets. Their importance is confirmed not only by the Iguvine Tablets and Latin historians, and by the important and privileged role played by this city in Roman times, but also by the discovery, at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, of one of the larger mixed burial necropoleis (Urnfield culture and burial fields) in Europe, about 3000 tombs (Necropoli delle Acciaierie di Terni).
Assisi, called Asisium by the Romans, was an ancient Umbrian site on a spur of Mount Subasio. Myth relates that the city was founded by Dardanus in 847 BC.
Perugia and Orvieto are not considered of Umbrian but Etruscan origin. According to the geographical distribution of the Umbrian territory, they are located on the left side of the Tiber River, which is part of the ancient Etruria. Umbri were on the opposite side of the river. According to the map of Regio Umbria and Ager Galliucus by Emperor Augustus, the major Umbrian city-states were: Terni, Todi, Amelia and Spoleto (the current part of southern Umbria).
A 2020 analysis of maternal haplogroups from ancient and modern samples indicated a substantial genetic similarity among the modern inhabitants of Umbria and the area's ancient pre-Roman inhabitants, and evidence of substantial genetic continuity in the region from pre-Roman times to the present with regard to mitochondrial DNA. Both modern and ancient Umbrians were found to have high rates of mtDNA haplogroups U4 and U5a, and an overrepresentation of J (at roughly 30%). The study also found that, "local genetic continuities are further attested to by six terminal branches (H1e1, J1c3, J2b1, U2e2a, U8b1b1 and K1a4a)" also shared by ancient and modern Umbrians.[39]
1 2 Pliny (1961). "Chapter 19". Natural History with an English translation in ten volumes by H. Rackham. Vol.3. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp.paragraphs 112–113.
↑ Cambrian Institute (1862). The Cambrian Journal. Forgotten Books. p.118. ISBN1332838049. From Caius Sempronius (De Divis. Ital.,); "The portion of the Apennines from the sources of the Tiber to the Nar, the Umbri inhabit, the oldest stock of the Old Gael, (Veteres Galli), as Augustus writes." [Apenninum colunt Ligures, portionem vero Apennini inhabitant Umbri, prima veterum Gallorum proies, ut Augustus scribit.]{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
↑ Prichard, James Cowles (1841). Ethnography of Europe. 3d ed. 1841. Houlston & Stoneman. Solinus informs us that Bocchus, a writer who has been several times cited by Pliny, reported the Umbri to have been descended from the ancient Gauls; and a similar account of their origin has been adopted, either from the same or from different testimony, by Servius, Isidore, and other writers of a late period.
↑ Boardman, John (1988). The Cambridge ancient history: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525–479 BC. p.716.
↑ Strabo, Geography, book 4, 7 BCE, p. 465, Alexandria,
↑ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "Book II.49". Roman Antiquities. But Zenodotus of Troezen, a...historian, relates that the Umbrians, a native race, first dwelt in the Reatine territory, as it is called, and that, being driven from there by the Pelasgians, they came into the country which they now inhabit and changing their name with their place of habitation, from Umbrians were called Sabines. But Porcius Cato says that the Sabine race received its name from Sabus, the son of Sancus, a divinity of that country, and that this Sancus was by some called Jupiter Fidius.
Amann, Petra (2024). "The Umbrians". In Maiuro, Marco; Botsford Johnson, Jane (eds.). The Oxford handbook of pre-Roman Italy (1000-49 BCE). Oxford handbooks series. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-998789-4.
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