White wagtail

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White wagtail
20180415 015 Winterswijk Witte kwikstaart (40785272624).jpg
Adult male M. alba alba
White wagtail female first summer.jpg
First summer female M. alba alba
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Motacillidae
Genus: Motacilla
Species:
M. alba
Binomial name
Motacilla alba
White wagtail distribution.PNG
  Summer range
  Year-round range
  Winter range

The white wagtail (Motacilla alba) is a small passerine bird in the family Motacillidae, which also includes pipits and longclaws. The species breeds in the Palearctic zone in most of Europe and Asia and parts of North Africa; it also has a toehold in western Alaska as a scarce breeder. It is resident in the mildest parts of its range, but otherwise migrates to Africa. In total, there are between 9 and 11 subspecies of M. alba; in Ireland and Great Britain, the black-backed subspecies known as the pied wagtail (M. a. yarrellii) predominates.

Contents

The white wagtail is an insectivorous bird of open country, often near habitation and water. [2] It prefers bare areas for feeding, where it can see and pursue its prey. In urban areas, it has adapted to foraging on paved areas such as car parks. It nests in crevices in stone walls and similar natural and human-made structures. [2]

It is the national bird of Latvia and has featured on the stamps of several countries. [3] It is listed as being 'of least concern' by IUCN. [1]

Taxonomy and systematics

Breeding ranges of the major races MotacillaAlbaDistribution.svg
Breeding ranges of the major races

The white wagtail was one of the many species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, and it still bears its original name Motacilla alba. [4] [2] The Latin genus name originally meant "little mover", but certain medieval writers thought it meant "wag-tail", giving rise to a new false Latin word cilla for "tail". [5] The specific epithet alba is Latin for "white". [6]

Within the wagtail genus Motacilla, the white wagtail's closest genetic relatives appear to be other black-and-white wagtails such as the Japanese wagtail Motacilla grandis and the white-browed wagtail Motacilla madaraspatensis (and possibly the Mekong wagtail Motacilla samveasnae, the phylogenetic position of which is mysterious), with which it appears to form a superspecies. However, mtDNA cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequence data suggests that the white wagtail is itself polyphyletic or paraphyletic (i.e. the species is not itself a single coherent grouping). [7] Other phylogenetic studies using mtDNA still suggest that there is considerable gene flow within the races and the resulting closeness makes Motacilla alba a single species. [8] A study has suggested the existence of only two groups: the alba group, with M. a. alba, M. a. yarrellii, M. a. baicalensis, M. a. ocularis, M. a. lugens, and M. a. subpersonata; and the alboides group, with M. a. alboides, M. a. leucopsis and M. a. personata. [9]

Description

An adult with a juvenile in Kazakhstan Motacilla alba -Kazakhstan -adult and juvenile-8.jpg
An adult with a juvenile in Kazakhstan
An adult in Sweden with insects in its beak to its young. Sadesarla - (Motacilla alba) - Ystad-2024.jpg
An adult in Sweden with insects in its beak to its young.

The white wagtail is a slender bird, 16.5 to 19 cm (6.5 to 7.5 in) in length; the East Asian subspecies are slightly longer, measuring up to 21 cm (8.3 in). It has the characteristic long, constantly wagging tail of its genus. Its average weight is 25 g (0.88 oz) and the maximum lifespan in the wild is about 12 years. [10]

There are a number of other subspecies, some of which may have arisen because of partial geographical isolation, such as the resident British and Irish form, the pied wagtail M. a. yarrellii, which now also breeds in adjacent areas of the neighbouring European mainland. The pied wagtail, named after the naturalist William Yarrell, exchanges the pale grey colour of the nominate subspecies with black in males, and dark grey in females and juveniles, but is otherwise identical in its behaviour. Other subspecies, the validity of some of which is questionable, differ in the colour of the wings, back, and head, or other features. Some races show sexual dimorphism during the breeding season. As many as six subspecies may be present in the wintering grounds in India or southeast Asia and here they can be difficult to distinguish. [11] [12] [13] [14] Phylogenetic studies using mtDNA suggest that some morphological features have evolved more than once, including the back and chin colour. Breeding M. a. yarrellii look much like the nominate race except for the black back, and M. a. alboides of the Himalayas differs from the Central Asian M. a. personata only by its black back. M. a. personata has been recorded breeding in the Siddar Valley of Kashmir of the Western Himalayas. [15] It has also been noted that both back and chin change colour during the pre-basic moult; all black-throated subspecies develop white chins and throats in winter and some black-backed birds are grey-backed in winter. [8] [11]

The call of the white wagtail is a sharp chissick, slightly softer than the version given by the pied wagtail. The song is more regular in white than pied, but with little territorial significance, since the male uses a series of contact calls to attract the female. [16]

Subspecies

Information on the plumage differences and distribution of the subspecies of the white wagtail is shown below. Nine subspecies are generally accepted. [17] Two others, M. a. dukhunensis and M. a. persica, are accepted by some other authors, but are generally considered synonyms of M. a. alba. [17] The black-backed wagtail M. a. lugens may be a separate species. [18]

SubspeciesRangeNotesImage
M. a. yarrelliiGreat Britain and Ireland; birds in the northern part of the range winter in Spain and North Africa, those further south are resident. [19] Pied wagtail. Has a much blacker back than the nominate race, black of throat continues on side of neck. Named after William Yarrell (1784–1856), the writer of the History of British Birds (first ed. 1843). 2014-04-21 Motacilla alba yarrellii, Harthope 1.jpg
M. a. albaEurope from the Iberian Peninsula to Ural Mountains, Turkey, the Levant, Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland's eastern coast. Some migrate to the south of Europe and Africa down as far as Kenya and Malawi. In Britain, they breed on Shetland and occasionally elsewhere, and are regular on passage (mostly from Iceland, but also Scandinavia) in spring and autumn. Nominate subspecies Motacilla alba alba.JPG
M. a. subpersonataMorocco; non-migratory residentMoroccan wagtail. It has more black on the head than the nominate, and resembles a grey-backed, white-throated African pied wagtail [19] Moroccan Wagtail.jpg
M. a. personata Hindu Kush, Tian Shan, Altay Mountains (northern Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Xinjiang)Masked wagtail. All-black head with a white face mask White wagtail - Male (Non-breeding- personata race) at Hodal- I IMG 9164.jpg
M. a. baicalensisRussia in Lake Baikal area, Mongolia, Inner Mongolia Resembles M. a. leucopsis but grey back and less white on head and wing. Motacilla alba ssp. baicalensis.jpg
M. a. ocularis Siberia, Far Eastern (Russia, eastwards from Central Siberian Plateau) expanding into West Alaska Similar to M. a. lugens, but with an all grey rump, clearer blue-grey and darker gray back. [20]
M. a. lugensRussia Far East (Primorsky Krai, Khabarovsk Krai), Kamchatka Peninsula, Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Japan (Hokkaidō, Honshū)Black-backed wagtail or Kamchatka/Japanese pied wagtail, similar to M. a. yarrellii, but has a black eyestripe and white remiges; might have a claim to constitute a distinct species. Hakusekirei 06f5184cav.jpg
M. a. leucopsisChina, Korean Peninsula, Japan (Ryukyu Islands, Kyūshū), expanding into Japan (Honshū), Southeast Asia, India, and Oceania Amur wagtail [21] [22] [23] White Wagtail- (Non-breeding- leucopsis race) at Kolkata I1 IMG 5597.jpg
M. a. alboides Himalayas and surrounding areaThis subspecies has a black back and a lot of black around the head, a white wing panel and white edges on the secondaries and tertials. Motacilla alba alboides.jpg
[M. a. persica]North central and western Iran.Intermediate between M. a. dukhunensis and M. a. personata. Now usually included in alba; appears to be hybrid or intergrade population. [19] MotacillaAlbaPersica.jpg
[M. a. dukhunensis] West Siberian Plain east Caspian Sea (part of Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan); winters in the Middle East, India and Bangladesh. Now usually included in M. a. alba. [17] [19] Indian pied wagtail. The upperparts of this subspecies are paler and more blue-grey than nominate, and has it has a continuous unbroken white panel on wing coverts. Motacilla alba; Baikonur-town 001.jpg

Distribution and habitat

White wagtails sitting in a spruce and flying away; their characteristic flight pattern is visible. Kõrvemaa, Estonia, Spring 2021

This species breeds throughout Eurasia up to latitudes 75°N, only being absent in the Arctic from areas where the July isotherm is less than 4 °C. It also breeds in the mountains of Morocco and western Alaska. It occupies a wide range of habitats, but is absent from deserts. [16] White wagtails are residents in the milder parts of its range such as western Europe and the Mediterranean, but migratory in much of the rest of its range. Northern European breeders winter around the Mediterranean and in tropical and subtropical Africa, [24] and Asiatic birds move to the Middle East, India, [19] and Southeast Asia. [25] Birds from the North American population also winter in tropical Asia. [26]

Behaviour and ecology

The most conspicuous habit of this species is a near-constant tail wagging, a trait that has given the species, and indeed the genus, its common name. In spite of the ubiquity of this behaviour, the reasons for it are poorly understood. It has been suggested that it may flush prey, or signal submissiveness to other wagtails. A study in 2004 has suggested instead that it is a signal of vigilance to potential predators. [27]

Diet and feeding

The exact composition of the diet of white wagtails varies by location, but terrestrial and aquatic insects and other small invertebrates form the major part of the diet. These range from beetles, dragonflies, small snails, spiders, worms, crustaceans, to maggots found in carcasses and, most importantly, flies. [19] Small fish fry have also been recorded in the diet. The white wagtail is somewhat unusual in the parts of its range where it is non-migratory as it is an insectivorous bird that continues to feed on insects during the winter (most other insectivorous birds in temperate climates migrate or switch to more vegetable matter). [28]

Breeding

Eggs, Collection Museum Wiesbaden, Germany Motacilla alba MWNH 1575.JPG
Eggs, Collection Museum Wiesbaden, Germany
Juvenile M. a. alba in northern Norway, showing the grey face and chest Motacilla alba juvenile (Kirkenes, 2012).jpg
Juvenile M. a. alba in northern Norway, showing the grey face and chest

White wagtails are monogamous and defend breeding territories. [19] The breeding season for most is from April to August, with the season starting later further north. Both sexes are responsible for building the nest, with the male responsible for initiating the nest building and the female for finishing the process. For second broods in the subspecies personata the female alone builds the nest, which is a rough cup assembled from twigs, grass, leaves and other plant matter, as the male is still provisioning the young. [29] It is lined with soft materials, including animal hair. The nest is set into a crevice or hole, traditionally in a bank next to a river or ditch, but the species has also adapted to nesting in walls, bridges and buildings. One nest was found in the skull of a walrus. White wagtails will nest in association with other animals; particularly, where available, the dams of beavers and also inside the nests of golden eagles. [29] Three to eight eggs are laid, with the usual number being four to six. The eggs are cream-coloured, often with a faint bluish-green or turquoise tint, and heavily spotted with reddish brown; they measure, on average, 21 mm × 15 mm (0.83 in × 0.59 in). [30] Both parents incubate the eggs, although the female generally does so for longer and incubates at night. The eggs begin to hatch after 12 days (sometimes as late as 16 days). Both parents feed the chicks until they fledge after between 12 and 15 days, and the chicks are fed for another week after fledging. [31]

Though it is known to be a host species for the common cuckoo, the white wagtail typically deserts its nest if it has been parasitised. Moksnes et al. theorised that this occurs because the wagtail is too small to push the intruding egg out of the nest, and too short-billed to destroy the egg by puncturing it. [32]

Status

This species has a large range, with an estimated extent of more than 10 million square kilometres (3.9 million square miles). The population size is between 130 and 230 million. [1] Population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated to be of least concern. [1] The population in Europe appears to be stable. [24] The species has adapted well to human changes to the environment and has exploited human changes such as human-made structures that are used for nesting sites and increased open areas that are used for foraging. [19] In a number of cities, notably Dublin, large flocks gather in winter to roost. They are therefore rated as of least concern. However, they are caught for sport and then placed into collections. They are also kept as cagebirds and eaten as food. Climate change may be affecting the time of their migration. [1]

In culture

They have featured on stamps from Bahrain, Belarus, Belgium, Finland, Georgia, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, Iran, Ireland, Israel, Jersey, Kuwait, Latvia, Norway, Poland, the United Kingdom and Vietnam. [33] The white wagtail is the national bird of Latvia, and has been often mentioned in Latvian folk songs. [3]

The pied wagtail has occasionally been called "water wagtail"; [34] and in Ireland "willie wagtail", [35] [36] not to be confused with the Australian species Rhipidura leucophrys which bears the same common name. [37]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common cuckoo</span> Species of bird

The cuckoo, common cuckoo, European cuckoo or Eurasian cuckoo is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, Cuculiformes, which includes the roadrunners, the anis and the coucals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wagtail</span> Genus of birds

Wagtails are a group of passerine birds that form the genus Motacilla in the family Motacillidae. The common name and genus name are derived from their characteristic tail pumping behaviour. Together with the pipits and longclaws they form the family Motacillidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Willie wagtail</span> Species of bird

The willie wagtail, scientific name Rhipidura leucophrys, is a passerine bird native to Australia, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, and Eastern Indonesia. It is a common and familiar bird throughout much of its range, living in most habitats apart from thick forest. Measuring 19–21.5 cm in length, the willie wagtail is contrastingly coloured with almost entirely black upperparts and white underparts; the male and female have similar plumage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pipit</span> Genus of birds

The pipits are a cosmopolitan genus, Anthus, of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. Along with the wagtails and longclaws, the pipits make up the family Motacillidae. The genus is widespread, occurring across most of the world, except the driest deserts, rainforest and the mainland of Antarctica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Motacillidae</span> Family of birds

The wagtails, longclaws, and pipits are a family, Motacillidae, of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. Around 70 species occur in five genera. The longclaws are entirely restricted to the Afrotropics, and the wagtails are predominantly found in Europe, Africa, and Asia, with two species migrating and breeding in Alaska. The pipits have the most cosmopolitan distribution, being found mostly in the Old World, but occurring also in the Americas and oceanic islands such as New Zealand and the Falklands. Two African species, the yellow-breasted pipit and Sharpe's longclaw, are sometimes placed in a separate seventh genus, Hemimacronyx, which is closely related to the longclaws.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grey wagtail</span> Species of bird

The grey wagtail is a member of the wagtail family, Motacillidae, measuring around 18–19 cm overall length. The species looks somewhat similar to the yellow wagtail but has the yellow on its underside restricted to the throat and vent. Breeding males have a black throat. The species is widely distributed, with several populations breeding in Eurosiberia and migrating to tropical regions in Asia and Africa. The species is always associated with running water when breeding, although they may use man-made structures near streams for the nest. Outside the breeding season, they may also be seen around lakes, coasts and other watery habitats. Like other wagtails, they frequently wag their tail and fly low with undulations and they have a sharp call that is often given in flight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western yellow wagtail</span> Species of bird

The western yellow wagtail is a small passerine bird in the wagtail family Motacillidae, which also includes the pipits and longclaws.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Citrine wagtail</span> Species of bird

The citrine wagtail (Motacilla citreola) is a small songbird in the family Motacillidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European rock pipit</span> Small passerine bird that breeds in western Europe

The European rock pipit, or simply rock pipit, is a species of small passerine bird that breeds in western Europe on rocky coasts. It has streaked greyish-brown upperparts and buff underparts, and is similar in appearance to other European pipits. There are two subspecies, of which the nominate is non-migratory, and the Fennoscandian one is migratory, wintering in shoreline habitats further west and south in Europe. The European rock pipit is territorial at least in the breeding season, and year-round where it is resident. Males will sometimes enter an adjacent territory to assist the resident in repelling an intruder, behaviour only otherwise known from the African fiddler crab.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water pipit</span> Species of passerine bird

The water pipit is a small passerine bird which breeds in the mountains of Southern Europe and the Palearctic eastwards to China. It is a short-distance migrant; many birds move to lower altitudes or wet open lowlands in winter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meadow pipit</span> Species of bird

The meadow pipit is a small passerine bird, which breeds in much of the Palearctic, from southeastern Greenland and Iceland east to just east of the Ural Mountains in Russia, and south to central France and Romania; an isolated population also occurs in the Caucasus Mountains. It is migratory over most of its range, wintering in southern Europe, North Africa, and south-western Asia, but is resident year-round in western Europe, though even here many birds move to the coast or lowlands in winter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tree pipit</span> Species of bird

The tree pipit is a small passerine bird which breeds across most of Europe and the Palearctic as far East as the East Siberian Mountains. It is a long-distance migrant moving in winter to Africa and southern Asia. The scientific name is from Latin: anthus is the name for a small bird of grasslands, and the specific trivialis means "common".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paddyfield pipit</span> Species of bird

The paddyfield pipit or Oriental pipit is a small passerine bird in the pipit and wagtail family. It is a resident (non-migratory) breeder in open scrub, grassland and cultivation in southern Asia east to the Philippines. Although among the few breeding pipits in the Asian region, identification becomes difficult in winter when several other species migrate into the region. The taxonomy of the species is complex and has undergone considerable changes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-browed wagtail</span> Species of bird

The white-browed wagtail or large pied wagtail is a medium-sized bird and is the largest member of the wagtail family. They are conspicuously patterned with black above and white below, a prominent white brow, shoulder stripe and outer tail feathers. White-browed wagtails are native to the Indian subcontinent, common near small water bodies and have adapted to urban environments where they often nest on roof tops. The specific name is derived from the Indian city of Madras.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forest wagtail</span> Species of bird

The forest wagtail is a medium-sized passerine bird in the wagtail family Motacillidae. It has a distinctive plumage that sets it apart from other wagtails and has the habit of wagging its tail sideways unlike the usual up and down movements of the other wagtail species. It is the only wagtail species that nests in trees. It is found mainly in forested habitats, breeding in the temperate parts of east Asia and wintering across tropical Asia from India to Indonesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cape wagtail</span> Species of bird

The Cape wagtail, also known as Wells's wagtail, is a small insectivorous bird which is widespread in southern Africa. It frequents water's edge, lawns and gardens. It is a mostly resident, territorial species, but has been known to undertake limited altitudinal migration or form flocks outside of the breeding season. Like other wagtails they are passerine birds of the family Motacillidae, which also includes the pipits and longclaws.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African pied wagtail</span> Species of bird

The African pied wagtail, or African wagtail, is a species of bird in the family Motacillidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese wagtail</span> Species of bird

The Japanese wagtail is a species of bird in the pipit and wagtail family Motacillidae. It is native to Japan and Korea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mekong wagtail</span> Species of bird

The Mekong wagtail is a species of bird in the family Motacillidae. It was first described in 2001 and named in honour of the late Cambodian ornithologist Sam Veasna. It is a black and white bird, similar in appearance to the African pied wagtail, although their ranges do not overlap. Its facial features and distinctive voice distinguish it from other black and white wagtails in southeastern Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern yellow wagtail</span> Species of bird

The eastern yellow wagtail is a small passerine in the wagtail family Motacillidae, which also includes the pipits and longclaws. It was often classified as a subspecies of the Western yellow wagtail. It breeds in the eastern Palearctic and Alaska and migrates to South Asia and Australia.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 BirdLife International (2019). "Motacilla alba". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T22718348A137417893. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22718348A137417893.en . Retrieved 8 August 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 Hunter, Fact (2013-03-18). "Bird's Lifestyle: White Wagtail - National Bird of Latvia". Bird's Lifestyle. Retrieved 2019-01-18.
  3. 1 2 "Symbols". [Latvia.eu]. 2015-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-18.
  4. ↑ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 185. M. pectore nigro, recticibus duabus lateralibus dimidiato oblique albis.
  5. ↑ Jobling, James (1991). A Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-854634-4.
  6. ↑ "Latin Definitions for: Alba (Latin Search) - Latin Dictionary and Grammar Resources - Latdict". www.latin-dictionary.net. white, pale...(adjective#1, definition 3)
  7. ↑ Voelker, Gary (2002). "Systematics and historical biogeography of wagtails: Dispersal versus vicariance revisited". Condor . 104 (4): 725–739. doi: 10.1650/0010-5422(2002)104[0725:SAHBOW]2.0.CO;2 . S2CID   85844839.
  8. 1 2 Pavlova, A.; Zink, R. M.; Rohwer, S.; Koblik, E. A.; Red'kin, Y. A.; Fadeev, I. V. & Nesterov, E. V. (2005). "Mitochondrial DNA and plumage evolution in the white wagtail Motacilla alba". Journal of Avian Biology. 36 (4): 322–336. doi:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2005.03373.x.
  9. ↑ Odeen, A.; Alstrom, P. (2001). "Evolution of secondary traits in wagtails (genus Motacilla)". Effects of post-glacial range expansion and population bottlenecks on species richness (PhD). Uppsala University.
  10. ↑ Wasser, D. E.; Sherman, P. W. (2010). "Avian longevities and their interpretation under evolutionary theories of senescence". Journal of Zoology. 280 (2): 103. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00671.x .
  11. 1 2 Alstrom, P. & Mild, K. (2003). Pipits and wagtails. Princeton University Press.
  12. ↑ Akhtar, Syed Asad; Prakash, Vibhu (1989). "Streakeyed Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba ocularis Swinhoe from Harike Lake, Punjab". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 86 (2): 246.
  13. ↑ Ticehurst, CB (1922). "Notes on Indian wagtails". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 28 (4): 1082–1090.
  14. ↑ Pittie, Aasheesh; Kulkarni, MS; Mathew, Rajeev (1998). "Range extension of White Wagtail Motacilla alba leucopsis at Pocharam Lake, Medak District, Andhra Pradesh". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 95 (2): 347–348.
  15. ↑ Fenton, LL (1910). "Breeding of the Masked Wagtail (Motacilla personata) in Kashmir". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 19 (4): 992.
  16. 1 2 Simms, Eric (1992). Larks, Pipits and Wagtails (Collins New Naturalist). Harper Collins. pp. 233–252. ISBN   978-0002198714.
  17. 1 2 3 Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2024). "Waxbills, parrotfinches, munias, whydahs, Olive Warbler, accentors, pipits". World Bird List Version 14.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 21 August 2024.
  18. ↑ Nakamura, Kazue (1985). "Historical change of the geographical distribution of two closely related species of the genus Motacilla in the Japanese Archipelago: a preliminary note". Bulletin of the Kanagawa Prefecture Museum of Natural Science (in Japanese). 16.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tyler, S. (2004). "Family Motacillidae (Pipits and Wagtails)". In del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A.; Christie, D. (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World . Vol. 9. pp. 777–778. ISBN   978-8487334696.
  20. ↑ Badyaev, Alexander V.; Gibson, Daniel D.; Kessel, Brina; Pyle, Peter; Patten, Michael A. (4 May 2017). "White wagtail". Birds of the World. Cornell University. doi:10.2173/bow.whiwag.01.
  21. ↑ British Ornithologists' Union Records Committee; British Birds Rarities Committee (22 July 2009). "Changes to Category A of the British List". BOU News. British Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  22. ↑ Addinall, Stephen (May 2010). "'Amur Wagtail' in County Durham: new to Britain and the Western Palearctic" (PDF). British Birds. 103: 260–267.
  23. ↑ Rowlands, Adam (May 2010). "Proposed criteria for BBRC assessment of claims of 'Amur Wagtail'". British Birds. 103: 268–275.
  24. 1 2 Snow, David; Perrins, Christopher M., eds. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic concise edition (2 volumes). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1103–1106. ISBN   978-0-19-854099-1.
  25. ↑ Arlott, Norman) (2007). Birds of the Palearctic: Passerines (Collins Field Guide). Harper Collins. pp. 30–31. ISBN   978-0-00-714705-2.
  26. ↑ Sibley, David (2000). The North American Bird Guide. Pica Press. ISBN   978-1873403983.
  27. ↑ Randler, Christoph (2006). "Is tail wagging in white wagtails, Motacilla alba, an honest signal of vigilance?". Animal Behaviour. 71 (5): 1089–1093. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.07.026. S2CID   53189368.
  28. ↑ Davies, N.B. (1976). "Food, Flocking and Territorial Behaviour of the Pied Wagtail (Motacilla alba yarrellii Gould) in Winter". The Journal of Animal Ecology. 45 (1): 235–253. Bibcode:1976JAnEc..45..235D. doi:10.2307/3777. JSTOR   3777.
  29. 1 2 Badyaev, A. V.; Gibson, D. D.; Kessel, B. (1996). "White Wagtail (Moticilla alba)". The Birds of North America Online. doi:10.2173/bna.236. S2CID   83483724 . Retrieved 16 April 2010.
  30. ↑ Peyton, Leonard J. (May 1963). "Nesting and occurrence of White Wagtail in Alaska" (PDF). Condor. 65 (3): 232–235. doi:10.2307/1365667. JSTOR   1365667.
  31. ↑ Paul Guillet; Nicole Bouglouan. "White Wagtail". Oiseaux-Birds.
  32. ↑ Moksnes, Arne; Eivin Roskaft; Anders T. Braa (April 1991). "Rejection Behavior by Common Cuckoo Hosts Towards Artificial Brood Parasite Eggs" (PDF). Auk. 108 (2): 248–254.
  33. ↑ Chris Gibbons. "White Wagtail stamps". www.bird-stamps.org. Archived from the original on October 1, 2000.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  34. ↑ Water wagtail collinsdictionary.com
  35. ↑ Fewer, Michael (March 2, 2020). A Natural Year: The Tranquil Rhythms and Restorative Powers of Irish Nature Through the Seasons. Merrion Press. ISBN   9781785373206 – via Google Books.
  36. ↑ Colton, Stephen (February 23, 2019). "Take on Nature: Pied Wagtails make a poignant appearance". The Irish News.
  37. ↑ Ashdown, Robert (July 3, 2012). "The spirited Wagtail".

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