1948 Italian general election

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1948 Italian general election
Flag of Italy.svg
  1946 18 April 1948 (1948-04-18) 1953  

All 574 seats in the Chamber of Deputies
288 seats needed for a majority
237 seats in the Senate
172 seats needed for a majority [a]
Registered29,117,554 (C) ·25,874,809 (S)
Turnout26,855,741 (C) ·92.2%
23,842,919 (S) ·92.2%
 Majority partyMinority partyThird party
  Alcide de Gasperi 2.jpg
Palmiro Togliatti (cropped).png
Giuseppe Saragat daticamera (cropped).jpg
Leader Alcide De Gasperi Palmiro Togliatti [b] Giuseppe Saragat
Party DC FDP US
Leader since29 December 194428 December 1947 [c] 11 January 1947
Leader's seat Trento (C) Rome (C) Turin (C)
Seats won305 (C) / 131 (S)183 (C) / 72 (S)33 (C) / 10 (S)
Popular vote12,740,042 (C)
10,899,640 (S)
8,136,637 (C)
6,969,122 (S)
1,858,116 (C)
943,219 (S)
Percentage48.5% (C)
48.1% (S)
31.0% (C)
30.8% (S)
7.1% (C)
4.6% (S)

 Fourth partyFifth partySixth party
 
Roberto Lucifero.jpg
Alfredo Covelli 1963.jpg
Randolfo Pacciardi (2).jpg
Leader Roberto Lucifero Alfredo Covelli Randolfo Pacciardi
Party BN PNM PRI
Leader since3 December 194711 June 194620 January 1947 [d]
Leader's seat Calabria (S) Benevento (C) Pisa (C)
Seats won19 (C) / 7 (S)14 (C) / 3 (S)9 (C) / 4 (S)
Popular vote1,003,727 (C)
1,222,419 (S)
729,078 (C)
393,510 (S)
651,875 (C)
594,178 (S)
Percentage3.8% (C)
5.4% (S)
2.8% (C)
1.7% (S)
2.5% (C)
2.6% (S)

1948 Italian general election - Results.svg
1948 Italian general election - Seat Distribution.svg

Prime Minister before election

Alcide De Gasperi
DC

Prime Minister after the election

Alcide De Gasperi
DC

General elections were held in Italy on 18 April 1948 to elect the first Parliament of the Italian Republic. [1]

Contents

After the Soviet-backed coup in Czechoslovakia in February 1948, the U.S. became alarmed about Soviet intentions in Central Europe and feared that Italy would be drawn into the Soviet sphere of influence if the leftist Popular Democratic Front (Italian abbr.: FDP), which consisted of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) and the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), were to win the 1948 general election. As the last month of the election campaign began, Time magazine published an article which argued that an FDP victory would push Italy to "the brink of catastrophe". [2]

The U.S. consequently intervened in the election by heavily funding the centrist coalition led by Christian Democracy (DC) and launching an anti-communist propaganda campaign in Italy. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) claims that the Soviet Union responded by sending exorbitant funds to the FDP coalition. However, the PCI disputed this claim and, in contrast, expressed its discontent with what it perceived as a lack of support from the Soviets.[ citation needed ]

The DC coalition won the election by a comfortable margin and defeated the FDP coalition. [3] The DC coalition went on to form a government without the leftists, who had been expelled from the government coalition in the May 1947 crises and remained frozen out.

Electoral system

The pure party-list proportional representation chosen two years before for the election of the Constituent Assembly was adopted for the Chamber of Deputies. Italian provinces were divided into 31 constituencies, each electing a group of candidates. [e] In each constituency, seats were divided between open lists using the largest remainder method with the Imperiali quota. Remaining votes and seats transferred to the national level, where special closed lists of national leaders received the last seats using the Hare quota.

For the Senate, 237 single-seat constituencies were created. The candidates needed a two-thirds majority to be elected, but only 15 aspiring senators were elected this way. All remaining votes and seats were grouped in party lists and regional constituencies, where the D'Hondt method was used: Inside the lists, candidates with the best percentages were elected.

This electoral system became standard in Italy, and was used until 1993.

Parties and leaders

PartyIdeologyLeader
Christian Democracy (DC) Christian democracy Alcide De Gasperi
Popular Democratic Front (FDP) Socialism, communism Palmiro Togliatti, Pietro Nenni
Socialist Unity (US) Social democracy Giuseppe Saragat
National Bloc (BN) Conservative liberalism Roberto Lucifero
Monarchist National Party (PNM) Monarchism Alfredo Covelli
Italian Republican Party (PRI) Republicanism, reformism Randolfo Pacciardi
Italian Social Movement (MSI) Neo-fascism Giorgio Almirante

Campaign

The election remain unmatched in verbal aggression and fanaticism in Italy's period of democracy. According to the historian Gianni Corbi the 1948 election was "the most passionate, the most important, the longest, the dirtiest, and the most uncertain electoral campaign in Italian history". [4] The election was between two competing visions of the future of Italian society. On the right, a Roman Catholic, conservative and capitalist Italy, represented by the governing Christian Democrats of De Gasperi. On the left a secular, revolutionary and socialist society, linked to the Soviet Union and represented by the FDP coalition led by the PCI. [4]

The Christian Democrat campaign pointed to the recent communist coup in Czechoslovakia. It warned that in Communist countries, "children send parents to jail", "children are owned by the state", and told voters that disaster would strike Italy if the Communists were to take power. [5] [6] Another slogan was "In the secrecy of the polling booth, God sees you – Stalin doesn't." [7]

The FDP campaign focused on living standards and avoided embarrassing questions of foreign policy, such as UN membership (vetoed by the Soviet Union) and Yugoslav control of Trieste, or losing American financial and food aid. The PCI led the FDP coalition and had effectively marginalised the PSI, which suffered loss in terms of parliamentary seats and political power. [f] The PSI had also been hurt by the secession of a social-democratic faction led by Giuseppe Saragat, which contested the election with the concurrent list of Socialist Unity.

The PCI had difficulties in restraining its more militant members, who, in the period immediately after the war, had engaged in violent acts of reprisals. The areas affected by the violence (the so-called "Red Triangle" of Emilia, or parts of Liguria around Genoa and Savona, for instance) had previously seen episodes of brutality committed by the Fascists during Benito Mussolini's regime and the Italian Resistance during the Allied advance through Italy.

Conduct

The 1948 general election was greatly influenced by the Cold War that was underway between the Soviet Union and the United States. [9] After his defeat in the election, PCI leader Palmiro Togliatti stated on 22 April that: "The elections were not free ... Brutal foreign intervention was used consisting of a threat to starve the country by withholding ERP aid if it voted for the Democratic Front ... The menace to use the atom bomb against towns or regions" that voted pro-communist. [10] The U.S. government's Voice of America radio began broadcasting anti-Communist propaganda to Italy on 24 March 1948. [11] The CIA, by its own admission, gave US$1 million (equivalent to $13 million in 2024) to what they referred to as "center parties" [12] and was accused of publishing forged letters to discredit the leaders of the PCI. [13] The National Security Act of 1947, that made foreign covert operations possible, had been signed into law about six months earlier by the American President Harry S. Truman.

U.S. agencies also sent ten million letters, made numerous short-wave radio broadcasts, and funded the publishing of books and articles, all of which warned Italians of the "consequences" of a communist victory. Overall, the U.S. funnelled $10 million to $20 million (equivalent to $130 million to $260 million in 2024) into the country for specifically anti-PCI purposes. The CIA also made use of off-the-books sources of financing to interfere in the election: millions of dollars from the Economic Cooperation Administration affiliated with the Marshall Plan [14] and more than $10 million in captured Nazi money were steered to anti-communist propaganda. [15] In this regard, CIA operative F. Mark Wyatt claimed: "We had bags of money that we delivered to selected politicians, to defray their political expenses, their campaign expenses, for posters, for pamphlets." [16]

Wyatt also claimed that, in the lead up to the election, the PCI received exorbitant funds of up to $10 million per month from the Soviet Union and that Italian authorities were aware of the Soviets' activities. [13] This was disputed by the PCI, which voiced its frustration at the Soviets' lack of support for the FDP's campaign. [17] Italian historian Alessandro Brogi dismisses the CIA's claims as "overexaggerated" and notes that the Soviets only undertook "ad hoc last minute diplomatic [and] financial action" because it feared that inaction in Italy would set a precedent for U.S. intervention in Eastern Europe. Despite amicable meetings in the postwar years between top PCI official Pietro Secchia and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, [18] the Soviets were apprehensive about committing to Italy financially [17] and only provided "occasional and modest" funds to the PCI. [19] [20]

The Christian Democrats eventually won the 1948 election with 48 per cent of the vote, and the FDP received 31 per cent. The CIA's practice of influencing the political situation was repeated in every Italian election for at least the next 24 years. [16] No leftist coalition won a general election until 1996. That was partly because of Italians' traditional bent for conservatism and, even more importantly, the Cold War, with the U.S. closely watching Italy, in their determination to maintain a vital NATO presence amidst the Mediterranean and retain the Yalta-agreed status quo in western Europe. [21]

The Irish government, motivated by the country's devout Catholicism, also interfered in the election by funnelling the modern day equivalent of €2 million through the Irish Embassy to the Vatican, which then distributed it to Catholic politicians. Joseph Walshe, Ireland's ambassador to the Vatican, had privately suggested secretly funding Azione Cattolica. [22]

Results

Differences of voting strength between DC and FDP in the country Elezioni Camera 1948 Distacco.png
Differences of voting strength between DC and FDP in the country

Christian Democracy won a sweeping victory, taking 48.5 per cent of the vote and 305 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 131 seats in the Senate. With an absolute majority in both chambers, DC leader and premier Alcide De Gasperi could have formed an exclusively DC government. Instead, he formed a "centrist" coalition with Liberals, Republicans and Social Democrats. De Gasperi formed three ministries during the parliamentary term, the second one in 1950 after the defection of the Liberals, who hoped for more rightist politics, and the third one in 1951 after the defection of the Social-democrats, who hoped for more leftist politics.

Following a provision of the new republican constitution, all living democratic deputies elected during the 1924 general election and deposed by the National Fascist Party in 1926, automatically became members of the first republican Senate.

Chamber of Deputies

Italian Chamber of Deputies, 1948.svg
PartyVotes%Seats+/–
Christian Democracy 12,740,04248.51305+98
Popular Democratic Front 8,136,63730.98183−36
Socialist Unity 1,858,1167.0733New
National Bloc 1,003,7273.8219−52
Monarchist National Party 729,0782.7814−2
Italian Republican Party 651,8752.489−14
Italian Social Movement 526,8822.016New
South Tyrolean People's Party 124,2430.473New
Peasants' Party of Italy 95,9140.3710
Social Christian Party 72,8540.2800
Sardinian Action Party 61,9280.241−1
Nationalist Movement for the Social Democracy56,0960.210New
Federalist Movements' Union52,6550.200New
Unionist People's Bloc35,8990.140New
Internationalist Communist Party 20,7360.0800
Republican Progressive Democratic Front 14,4820.060–1
National Concentration of United Combatants11,3960.040New
Italian Demolabourist Party10,0020.040New
Independent Democratic Party of Pensioners8,1250.030New
Independent Peasants' Party6,7330.030New
Democratic Front of the Italians5,4810.020New
Political Group The Right4,3000.020New
National Association of Kindred Missing in War3,7070.010New
Homeland and Freedom Party3,1780.010New
Rural and Independent Concentration of Aosta Valley2,9060.010New
Italian Anti-Bolshevik Front 2,7560.010New
Independent Socialist Union2,6370.010New
Italian Popular Grouping2,1910.010New
Single Anti-Communist Front – National Awakening2,0910.010New
Maglio1,6420.010New
Italian Confederation of Free Trade Unions1,5310.010New
National Movement Casualties and Damaged by War1,1790.000New
Sardinia League1,1170.0000
Independent Catholic Movement Pax et Justitia9610.000New
Italian Existentialist Party8160.000New
Other parties10,5450.040
Total26,264,458100.00574+18
Valid votes26,264,45897.80
Invalid/blank votes591,2832.20
Total votes26,855,741100.00
Registered voters/turnout29,117,27092.23
Source: Ministry of the Interior [23]
Popular vote
DC
48.51%
FDP
30.98%
US
7.07%
BN
3.82%
PNM
2.78%
PRI
2.48%
MSI
2.01%
Others
2.35%
Seats
DC
53.14%
FDP
31.88%
US
5.75%
BN
3.31%
PNM
2.44%
PRI
1.57%
MSI
1.05%
Others
0.87%

By constituency

ConstituencyTotal
seats
Seats won
DC FDP US BN PNM PRI MSI Others
Turin 2613103
Cuneo 169421
Genoa 19982
Milan 3618144
Como 14941
Brescia 191441
Mantua 1055
Trentino 9513
Verona 281972
Venice 161042
Udine 14932
Bologna 2471322
Parma 197102
Florence 1367
Pisa 15771
Siena 936
Ancona 179611
Perugia 1156
Rome 3520101121
L'Aquila 161051
Campobasso 431
Naples 311771141
Benevento 1811322
Bari 2212721
Lecce 169421
Potenza 642
Catanzaro 2413821
Catania 26155222
Palermo 251362211
Cagliari 139311
Aosta Valley 11
National214443222
Total574305183331914965

Senate of the Republic

Italian Senate, 1948.svg
PartyVotes%Seats
Christian Democracy 10,899,64048.11131
Popular Democratic Front 6,969,12230.7672
National Bloc 1,222,4195.407
Socialist Unity 943,2194.168
USPRI 607,7922.684
Italian Republican Party 594,1782.624
Monarchist National Party 393,5101.743
Italian Social Movement 164,0920.721
South Tyrolean People's Party 95,4060.422
Peasants' Party of Italy 65,9860.290
Sardinian Action Party 65,7430.291
Federalist Movements' Union42,8800.190
Nationalist Movement for the Social Democracy27,1520.120
Republican Progressive Democratic Front 13,4790.060
Rural and Independent Concentration of Aosta Valley2,8680.010
Independent Socialist Union2,8330.010
Other parties2,9320.010
Independents544,0392.404
Total22,657,290100.00237
Valid votes22,657,29095.03
Invalid/blank votes1,185,6294.97
Total votes23,842,919100.00
Registered voters/turnout25,874,80992.15
Source: Ministry of the Interior [24]
Popular vote
DC
48.11%
FDP
30.76%
BN
5.40%
US
4.16%
USPRI
2.68%
PRI
2.62%
PNM
1.74%
Others
4.53%
Seats
DC
55.27%
FDP
30.38%
US
3.38%
BN
2.85%
USPRI
1.69%
PRI
1.69%
PNM
1.27%
Others
3.38%

By constituency

ConstituencyTotal
seats
Seats won
DC FDP US BN USPRI PRI PNM OthersInd.
Piedmont 178621
Aosta Valley 11
Lombardy 3118103
Trentino-Alto Adige 642
Veneto 191441
Friuli-Venezia Giulia 6411
Liguria 8431
Emilia-Romagna 176911
Tuscany 15771
Umbria 633
Marche 7421
Lazio 161051
Abruzzo 642
Molise 22
Campania 211142112
Apulia 158511
Basilicata 6321
Calabria 10532
Sicily 221251112
Sardinia 63111
Total237131728744344

Notes

  1. Total takes into account the 106 unelected senators who served ex officio throughout the first legislature, pursuant to Article III of the Final and Transitional Provisions of the Constitution of Italy.
  2. Palmiro Togliatti formally shared the leadership of the coalition with the PSI secretary, Pietro Nenni. Togliatti was the FDP candidate who received the most votes in the 1948 election.
  3. Palmiro Togliatti also served as secretary of the PCdI from 1926 to 1934 and from 1938 to 1943. Since 1943 he served as secretary of the PCI.
  4. Pacciardi also served as secretary from 1945 to 1946.
  5. The number of seats for each constituency went from 1 for Aosta Valley to 36 for Milan.
  6. The PCI gained more than the two-thirds of the seats won by the joint list. [8]

References

  1. Nohlen, Dieter; Stöver, Philip (2010). Elections in Europe: A data handbook (1st ed.). Nomos. p. 1048. ISBN   9783832956097. Archived from the original on 27 September 2024. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
  2. "ITALY: Fateful Day". Time. 22 March 1948. Archived from the original on 21 April 2020. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
  3. Drake, Richard (July 2004). "The Soviet Dimension of Italian Communism". Journal of Cold War Studies. 6 (3): 115–119. doi:10.1162/1520397041447355. S2CID   57564743.
  4. 1 2 Ventresca, From Fascism to Democracy, p. 4
  5. "ITALY: Show of Force", TIME Magazine, 12 April 1948
  6. "THE NATIONS: How to Hang On" Archived 17 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine , TIME Magazine, 19 April 1948
  7. "Fertility vote galvanises Vatican", BBC News, 13 June 2005
  8. "Number of MPs for each political group during the First Legislature", Italian Chamber of Deputies website.
  9. Brogi, Confronting America, pp. 101–110
  10. "Italian elections," Facts on File 18 – 24 April 1948, p. 125G.
  11. " Italy and Trieste," Facts on File 21 – 27 March 1948, p. 93E
  12. CIA memorandum to the Forty Committee (National Security Council), presented to the Select Committee on Intelligence, United States House of Representatives (the Pike Committee) during closed hearings held in 1975. The bulk of the committee's report that contained the memorandum was leaked to the press in February 1976 and first appeared in book form as CIA – The Pike Report (Nottingham, England, 1977). The memorandum appears on pp. 204–5 of this book.
  13. 1 2 "CNN Cold War Episode 3: Marshall Plan. Interview with F. Mark Wyatt, former CIA operative in Italy during the election". CNN.com. 1998–1999. Archived from the original on 31 August 2001. Retrieved 17 July 2006.
  14. Corke, Sarah-Jane (12 September 2007). US Covert Operations and Cold War Strategy: Truman, Secret Warfare and the CIA, 1945–53. Routledge. pp. 49–58. ISBN   9781134104130.
  15. Peter Dale Scott, "Operation Paper: The United States and Drugs in Thailand and Burma" 米国とタイ・ビルマの麻薬 Archived 18 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine , Asia-Pacific Journal Japan Focus, 1 November 2010, Volume 8, Issue 44, Number 2, citing Christopher Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), 172
  16. 1 2 F. Mark Wyatt, 86, C.I.A. Officer, Is Dead Archived 29 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine , The New York Times, 6 July 2006
  17. 1 2 Brogi, Confronting America, p. 109
  18. Pons, Silvio (2001), "Stalin, Togliatti, and the Origins of the Cold War in Europe" Archived 3 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine , Journal of Cold War Studies, Volume 3, Number 2, Spring 2001, pp. 3–27
  19. Ventresca, From Fascism to Democracy, p. 269
  20. Callanan, Covert Action in the Cold War, pp. 41–45
  21. Daniele Ganser (October 2005). "N.A.T.O. Gladio, and the strategy of tension". NATO's Secret Armies. Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe. Archived from the original on 31 August 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2006.
  22. "Irish state secretly intervened in Italian 1948 general election" Archived 11 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine , Irish Times
  23. Ministry of the Interior Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  24. Ministry of the Interior Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine

Further reading