1948 Italian general election

1948 Italian general election

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All 574 seats in the Chamber of Deputies 288 seats needed for a majority 237 seats in the Senate 172 seats needed for a majority [lower-alpha 1]
Registered	29,117,554 (C) ·25,874,809 (S)
Turnout	26,855,741 (C) ·92.2% 23,842,919 (S) ·92.2%
Majority party Minority party Third party   Leader Alcide De Gasperi Palmiro Togliatti [lower-alpha 2] Giuseppe Saragat Party DC Popular Democratic Front US Leader since 29 December 1944 28 December 1947 [lower-alpha 3] 11 January 1947 Leader's seat Trento (C) Rome (C) Turin (C) Seats won 305 (C) / 131 (S) 183 (C) / 72 (S) 33 (C) / 10 (S) Popular vote 12,740,042 (C) 10,899,640 (S) 8,136,637 (C) 6,969,122 (S) 1,858,116 (C) 943,219 (S) Percentage 48.5% (C) 48.1% (S) 31.0% (C) 30.8% (S) 7.1% (C) 4.6% (S)   Fourth party Fifth party Sixth party   Leader Roberto Lucifero Alfredo Covelli Randolfo Pacciardi Party BN PNM PRI Leader since 3 December 1947 11 June 1946 20 January 1947 [lower-alpha 4] Leader's seat Calabria (S) Benevento (C) Pisa (C) Seats won 19 (C) / 7 (S) 14 (C) / 3 (S) 9 (C) / 4 (S) Popular vote 1,003,727 (C) 1,222,419 (S) 729,078 (C) 393,510 (S) 651,875 (C) 594,178 (S) Percentage 3.8% (C) 5.4% (S) 2.8% (C) 1.7% (S) 2.5% (C) 2.6% (S)
Results of the election in the Chamber and Senate. Seat distribution for the Chamber of Deputies (left) and Senate (right).
Prime Minister before election Alcide De Gasperi DC Prime Minister after the election Alcide De Gasperi DC

General elections were held in Italy on 18 April 1948 to elect the first Parliament of the Italian Republic. ^[1]

After the Soviet-backed coup in Czechoslovakia in February 1948, the U.S. became alarmed about Soviet intentions in Central Europe and feared that Italy would be drawn into the Soviet sphere of influence if the leftist Popular Democratic Front (Italian abbr.: FDP), which consisted of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) and the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), were to win the 1948 general election. As the last month of the election campaign began, Time magazine published an article which argued that an FDP victory would push Italy to "the brink of catastrophe". ^[2]

The U.S. consequently intervened in the election by heavily funding the centrist coalition led by Christian Democracy (DC) and launching an anti-communist propaganda campaign in Italy. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) claims that the Soviet Union responded by sending exorbitant funds to the FDP coalition. However, the PCI disputed this claim and, in contrast, expressed its discontent with what it perceived as a lack of support from the Soviets.^{[ citation needed ]}

The DC coalition won the election by a comfortable margin and defeated the FDP coalition. ^[3] The DC coalition went on to form a government without the leftists, who had been expelled from the government coalition in the May 1947 crises and remained frozen out.

Electoral system

The pure party-list proportional representation chosen two years before for the election of the Constituent Assembly was adopted for the Chamber of Deputies. Italian provinces were divided into 31 constituencies, each electing a group of candidates. ^{[lower-alpha 5]} In each constituency, seats were divided between open lists using the largest remainder method with the Imperiali quota. Remaining votes and seats transferred to the national level, where special closed lists of national leaders received the last seats using the Hare quota.

For the Senate, 237 single-seat constituencies were created. The candidates needed a two-thirds majority to be elected, but only 15 aspiring senators were elected this way. All remaining votes and seats were grouped in party lists and regional constituencies, where the D'Hondt method was used: Inside the lists, candidates with the best percentages were elected.

This electoral system became standard in Italy, and was used until 1993.

Parties and leaders

Party		Ideology	Leader
	Christian Democracy (DC)	Christian democracy	Alcide De Gasperi
	Popular Democratic Front (FDP)	Socialism, communism	Palmiro Togliatti, Pietro Nenni
	Socialist Unity (US)	Social democracy	Giuseppe Saragat
	National Bloc (BN)	Conservative liberalism	Roberto Lucifero
	Monarchist National Party (PNM)	Monarchism	Alfredo Covelli
	Italian Republican Party (PRI)	Republicanism, reformism	Randolfo Pacciardi
	Italian Social Movement (MSI)	Neo-fascism	Giorgio Almirante

Campaign

The election remain unmatched in verbal aggression and fanaticism in Italy's period of democracy. According to the historian Gianni Corbi the 1948 election was "the most passionate, the most important, the longest, the dirtiest, and the most uncertain electoral campaign in Italian history". ^[4] The election was between two competing visions of the future of Italian society. On the right, a Roman Catholic, conservative and capitalist Italy, represented by the governing Christian Democrats of De Gasperi. On the left a secular, revolutionary and socialist society, linked to the Soviet Union and represented by the FDP coalition led by the PCI. ^[4]

The Christian Democrat campaign pointed to the recent communist coup in Czechoslovakia. It warned that in Communist countries, "children send parents to jail", "children are owned by the state", and told voters that disaster would strike Italy if the Communists were to take power. ^{[5] [6]} Another slogan was "In the secrecy of the polling booth, God sees you – Stalin doesn't." ^[7]

The FDP campaign focused on living standards and avoided embarrassing questions of foreign policy, such as UN membership (vetoed by the Soviet Union) and Yugoslav control of Trieste, or losing American financial and food aid. The PCI led the FDP coalition and had effectively marginalised the PSI, which suffered loss in terms of parliamentary seats and political power. ^{[lower-alpha 6]} The PSI had also been hurt by the secession of a social-democratic faction led by Giuseppe Saragat, which contested the election with the concurrent list of Socialist Unity.

The PCI had difficulties in restraining its more militant members, who, in the period immediately after the war, had engaged in violent acts of reprisals. The areas affected by the violence (the so-called "Red Triangle" of Emilia, or parts of Liguria around Genoa and Savona, for instance) had previously seen episodes of brutality committed by the Fascists during Benito Mussolini's regime and the Italian Resistance during the Allied advance through Italy.

Conduct

Main article: CIA activities in Italy

See also: Foreign interventions by the United States

The 1948 general election was greatly influenced by the Cold War that was underway between the Soviet Union and the United States. ^[9] After his defeat in the election, PCI leader Palmiro Togliatti stated on 22 April that: "The elections were not free ... Brutal foreign intervention was used consisting of a threat to starve the country by withholding ERP aid if it voted for the Democratic Front ... The menace to use the atom bomb against towns or regions" that voted pro-communist. ^[10] The U.S. government's Voice of America radio began broadcasting anti-Communist propaganda to Italy on 24 March 1948. ^[11] The CIA, by its own admission, gave US$1 million (equivalent to $13 million in 2023) to what they referred to as "center parties" ^[12] and was accused of publishing forged letters to discredit the leaders of the PCI. ^[13] The National Security Act of 1947, that made foreign covert operations possible, had been signed into law about six months earlier by the American President Harry S. Truman.

U.S. agencies also sent ten million letters, made numerous short-wave radio broadcasts, and funded the publishing of books and articles, all of which warned Italians of the "consequences" of a communist victory. Overall, the U.S. funnelled $10 million to $20 million (equivalent to $130 million to $250 million in 2023) into the country for specifically anti-PCI purposes. The CIA also made use of off-the-books sources of financing to interfere in the election: millions of dollars from the Economic Cooperation Administration affiliated with the Marshall Plan ^[14] and more than $10 million in captured Nazi money were steered to anti-communist propaganda. ^[15] In this regard, CIA operative F. Mark Wyatt claimed: "We had bags of money that we delivered to selected politicians, to defray their political expenses, their campaign expenses, for posters, for pamphlets." ^[16]

Wyatt also claimed that, in the lead up to the election, the PCI received exorbitant funds of up to $10 million per month from the Soviet Union and that Italian authorities were aware of the Soviets' activities. ^[13] This was disputed by the PCI, which voiced its frustration at the Soviets' lack of support for the FDP's campaign. ^[17] Italian historian Alessandro Brogi dismisses the CIA's claims as "overexaggerated" and notes that the Soviets only undertook "ad hoc last minute diplomatic [and] financial action" because it feared that inaction in Italy would set a precedent for U.S. intervention in Eastern Europe. Despite amicable meetings in the postwar years between top PCI official Pietro Secchia and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, ^[18] the Soviets were apprehensive about committing to Italy financially ^[17] and only provided "occasional and modest" funds to the PCI. ^{[19] [20]}

The Christian Democrats eventually won the 1948 election with 48 per cent of the vote, and the FDP received 31 per cent. The CIA's practice of influencing the political situation was repeated in every Italian election for at least the next 24 years. ^[16] No leftist coalition won a general election until 1996. That was partly because of Italians' traditional bent for conservatism and, even more importantly, the Cold War, with the U.S. closely watching Italy, in their determination to maintain a vital NATO presence amidst the Mediterranean and retain the Yalta-agreed status quo in western Europe. ^[21]

The Irish government, motivated by the country's devout Catholicism, also interfered in the election by funnelling the modern day equivalent of €2 million through the Irish Embassy to the Vatican, which then distributed it to Catholic politicians. Joseph Walshe, Ireland's ambassador to the Vatican, had privately suggested secretly funding Azione Cattolica. ^[22]

Results

Differences of voting strength between DC and FDP in the country

Christian Democracy won a sweeping victory, taking 48.5 per cent of the vote and 305 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 131 seats in the Senate. With an absolute majority in both chambers, DC leader and premier Alcide De Gasperi could have formed an exclusively DC government. Instead, he formed a "centrist" coalition with Liberals, Republicans and Social Democrats. De Gasperi formed three ministries during the parliamentary term, the second one in 1950 after the defection of the Liberals, who hoped for more rightist politics, and the third one in 1951 after the defection of the Social-democrats, who hoped for more leftist politics.

Following a provision of the new republican constitution, all living democratic deputies elected during the 1924 general election and deposed by the National Fascist Party in 1926, automatically became members of the first republican Senate.

Chamber of Deputies

Party		Votes	%	Seats	+/–
	Christian Democracy	12,740,042	48.51	305	+98
	Popular Democratic Front	8,136,637	30.98	183	−36
	Socialist Unity	1,858,116	7.07	33	New
	National Bloc	1,003,727	3.82	19	−52
	Monarchist National Party	729,078	2.78	14	−2
	Italian Republican Party	651,875	2.48	9	−14
	Italian Social Movement	526,882	2.01	6	New
	South Tyrolean People's Party	124,243	0.47	3	New
	Peasants' Party of Italy	95,914	0.37	1	0
	Social Christian Party	72,854	0.28	0	0
	Sardinian Action Party	61,928	0.24	1	−1
	Nationalist Movement for the Social Democracy	56,096	0.21	0	New
	Federalist Movements' Union	52,655	0.20	0	New
	Unionist People's Bloc	35,899	0.14	0	New
	Internationalist Communist Party	20,736	0.08	0	0
	Republican Progressive Democratic Front	14,482	0.06	0	–1
	National Concentration of United Combatants	11,396	0.04	0	New
	Italian Demolabourist Party	10,002	0.04	0	New
	Independent Democratic Party of Pensioners	8,125	0.03	0	New
	Independent Peasants' Party	6,733	0.03	0	New
	Democratic Front of the Italians	5,481	0.02	0	New
	Political Group The Right	4,300	0.02	0	New
	National Association of Kindred Missing in War	3,707	0.01	0	New
	Homeland and Freedom Party	3,178	0.01	0	New
	Rural and Independent Concentration of Aosta Valley	2,906	0.01	0	New
	Italian Anti-Bolshevik Front	2,756	0.01	0	New
	Independent Socialist Union	2,637	0.01	0	New
	Italian Popular Grouping	2,191	0.01	0	New
	Single Anti-Communist Front – National Awakening	2,091	0.01	0	New
	Maglio	1,642	0.01	0	New
	Italian Confederation of Free Trade Unions	1,531	0.01	0	New
	National Movement Casualties and Damaged by War	1,179	0.00	0	New
	Sardinia League	1,117	0.00	0	0
	Independent Catholic Movement Pax et Justitia	961	0.00	0	New
	Italian Existentialist Party	816	0.00	0	New
	Other parties	10,545	0.04	0	–
Total		26,264,458	100.00	574	+18
Valid votes		26,264,458	97.80
Invalid/blank votes		591,283	2.20
Total votes		26,855,741	100.00
Registered voters/turnout		29,117,270	92.23
Source: Ministry of the Interior

Popular vote DC   48.51% FDP   30.98% US   7.07% BN   3.82% PNM   2.78% PRI   2.48% MSI   2.01% Others   2.35%

Seats DC   53.14% FDP   31.88% US   5.75% BN   3.31% PNM   2.44% PRI   1.57% MSI   1.05% Others   0.87%

By constituency

Constituency	Total seats	Seats won
		DC	FDP	US	BN	PNM	PRI	MSI	Others
Turin	26	13	10	3
Cuneo	16	9	4	2					1
Genoa	19	9	8	2
Milan	36	18	14	4
Como	14	9	4	1
Brescia	19	14	4	1
Mantua	10	5	5
Trentino	9	5	1						3
Verona	28	19	7	2
Venice	16	10	4	2
Udine	14	9	3	2
Bologna	24	7	13	2			2
Parma	19	7	10	2
Florence	13	6	7
Pisa	15	7	7				1
Siena	9	3	6
Ancona	17	9	6	1			1
Perugia	11	5	6
Rome	35	20	10	1	1		2	1
L'Aquila	16	10	5	1
Campobasso	4	3			1
Naples	31	17	7	1	1	4		1
Benevento	18	11	3		2	2
Bari	22	12	7		2	1
Lecce	16	9	4		2	1
Potenza	6	4	2
Catanzaro	24	13	8		2			1
Catania	26	15	5	2	2	2
Palermo	25	13	6		2	2	1	1
Cagliari	13	9	3		1				1
Aosta Valley	1	1
National	21	4	4	4	3	2	2	2
Total	574	305	183	33	19	14	9	6	5

Senate of the Republic

Party		Votes	%	Seats
	Christian Democracy	10,899,640	48.11	131
	Popular Democratic Front	6,969,122	30.76	72
	National Bloc	1,222,419	5.40	7
	Socialist Unity	943,219	4.16	8
	US – PRI	607,792	2.68	4
	Italian Republican Party	594,178	2.62	4
	Monarchist National Party	393,510	1.74	3
	Italian Social Movement	164,092	0.72	1
	South Tyrolean People's Party	95,406	0.42	2
	Peasants' Party of Italy	65,986	0.29	0
	Sardinian Action Party	65,743	0.29	1
	Federalist Movements' Union	42,880	0.19	0
	Nationalist Movement for the Social Democracy	27,152	0.12	0
	Republican Progressive Democratic Front	13,479	0.06	0
	Rural and Independent Concentration of Aosta Valley	2,868	0.01	0
	Independent Socialist Union	2,833	0.01	0
	Other parties	2,932	0.01	0
	Independents	544,039	2.40	4
Total		22,657,290	100.00	237
Valid votes		22,657,290	95.03
Invalid/blank votes		1,185,629	4.97
Total votes		23,842,919	100.00
Registered voters/turnout		25,874,809	92.15
Source: Ministry of the Interior

Popular vote DC   48.11% FDP   30.76% BN   5.40% US   4.16% US–PRI   2.68% PRI   2.62% PNM   1.74% Others   4.53%

Seats DC   55.27% FDP   30.38% US   3.38% BN   2.85% US–PRI   1.69% PRI   1.69% PNM   1.27% Others   3.38%

By constituency

Constituency	Total seats	Seats won
		DC	FDP	US	BN	US–PRI	PRI	PNM	Others	Ind.
Piedmont	17	8	6	2						1
Aosta Valley	1	1
Lombardy	31	18	10			3
Trentino-Alto Adige	6	4							2
Veneto	19	14	4	1
Friuli-Venezia Giulia	6	4	1			1
Liguria	8	4	3	1
Emilia-Romagna	17	6	9	1			1
Tuscany	15	7	7	1
Umbria	6	3	3
Marche	7	4	2				1
Lazio	16	10	5				1
Abruzzo	6	4	2
Molise	2	2
Campania	21	11	4		2			1	1	2
Apulia	15	8	5		1					1
Basilicata	6	3	2	1
Calabria	10	5	3		2
Sicily	22	12	5	1	1		1	2
Sardinia	6	3	1		1				1
Total	237	131	72	8	7	4	4	3	4	4

Notes

1. Total takes into account the 106 unelected senators who served ex officio throughout the first legislature, pursuant to Article III of the Final and Transitional Provisions of the Constitution of Italy.
2. Palmiro Togliatti formally shared the leadership of the coalition with the PSI secretary, Pietro Nenni. Togliatti was the FDP candidate who received the most votes in the 1948 election.
3. Palmiro Togliatti also served as secretary of the PCdI from 1926 to 1934 and from 1938 to 1943. Since 1943 he served as secretary of the PCI.
4. Pacciardi also served as secretary from 1945 to 1946.
5. The number of seats for each constituency went from 1 for Aosta Valley to 36 for Milan.
6. The PCI gained more than the two-thirds of the seats won by the joint list. ^[8]

References

1. Nohlen, Dieter; Stöver, Philip (2010). Elections in Europe: A data handbook (1st ed.). Nomos. p. 1048. ISBN   9783832956097 . Retrieved 22 December 2019.
2. "ITALY: Fateful Day". Time. 22 March 1948. Retrieved 22 December 2019.
3. Drake, Richard (July 2004). "The Soviet Dimension of Italian Communism". Journal of Cold War Studies. 6 (3): 115–119. doi:10.1162/1520397041447355. S2CID   57564743.
4. Ventresca, From Fascism to Democracy, p. 4
5. "ITALY: Show of Force", TIME Magazine, 12 April 1948
6. "THE NATIONS: How to Hang On", TIME Magazine, 19 April 1948
7. "Fertility vote galvanises Vatican", BBC News, 13 June 2005
8. "Number of MPs for each political group during the First Legislature", Italian Chamber of Deputies website.
9. Brogi, Confronting America, pp. 101–110
10. "Italian elections," Facts on File 18 – 24 April 1948, p. 125G.
11. " Italy and Trieste," Facts on File 21 – 27 March 1948, p. 93E
12. CIA memorandum to the Forty Committee (National Security Council), presented to the Select Committee on Intelligence, United States House of Representatives (the Pike Committee) during closed hearings held in 1975. The bulk of the committee's report that contained the memorandum was leaked to the press in February 1976 and first appeared in book form as CIA – The Pike Report (Nottingham, England, 1977). The memorandum appears on pp. 204–5 of this book.
13. "CNN Cold War Episode 3: Marshall Plan. Interview with F. Mark Wyatt, former CIA operative in Italy during the election". CNN.com. 1998–1999. Archived from the original on 31 August 2001. Retrieved 17 July 2006.
14. Corke, Sarah-Jane (12 September 2007). US Covert Operations and Cold War Strategy: Truman, Secret Warfare and the CIA, 1945–53. Routledge. pp. 49–58. ISBN   9781134104130.
15. Peter Dale Scott, "Operation Paper: The United States and Drugs in Thailand and Burma" 米国とタイ・ビルマの麻薬, Asia-Pacific Journal Japan Focus, 1 November 2010, Volume 8, Issue 44, Number 2, citing Christopher Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), 172
16. F. Mark Wyatt, 86, C.I.A. Officer, Is Dead, The New York Times, 6 July 2006
17. Brogi, Confronting America, p. 109
18. Pons, Silvio (2001), "Stalin, Togliatti, and the Origins of the Cold War in Europe" Archived 3 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine , Journal of Cold War Studies, Volume 3, Number 2, Spring 2001, pp. 3–27
19. Ventresca, From Fascism to Democracy, p. 269
20. Callanan, Covert Action in the Cold War, pp. 41–45
21. Daniele Ganser (October 2005). "N.A.T.O. Gladio, and the strategy of tension". NATO's Secret Armies. Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe. Retrieved 21 July 2006.
22. "Irish state secretly intervened in Italian 1948 general election", Irish Times

Further reading

• Blum, William (2000). Killing Hope. Common Courage Press. ISBN   978-1-56751-053-9. Chapter 2 Italy 1947–1948: Free elections: Hollywood style
• Brogi, Alessandro (2011). Confronting America: The Cold War Between the United States and the Communists in France and Italy ^{[ permanent dead link ]}, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, ISBN   978-0-8078-3473-2
• Callanan, James (2010). Covert Action in the Cold War: US Policy, Intelligence and CIA Operations , London/New York: I.B. Tauris, ISBN   978-1-84511-882-2
• Del Pero, Mario. "The United States and 'psychological warfare' in Italy, 1948–1955". Journal of American History 87.4 (2001): 1304–1334.
• Luconi, Stefano. "Anticommunism, Americanization, and ethnic identity: Italian Americans and the 1948 parliamentary elections in Italy." Historian 62.2 (1999): 285–302. online
• Lundestad, Geir. "Empire by Invitation? The United States and Western Europe, 1945–1952." Journal of peace research 23.3 (1986): 263–277.
• Miller, James E. "Taking off the gloves: The United States and the Italian elections of 1948." Diplomatic History 7.1 (1983): 35–56. Online
• Mistry, Kaeten. "The case for political warfare: Strategy, organization and US involvement in the 1948 Italian election." Cold War History 6.3 (2006): 301–329.
• Mistry, Kaeten. The United States, Italy and the origins of cold War: Waging political warfare, 1945–1950 (Cambridge UP, 2014).
• Pedaliu, Effie G. H. "The 18 April 1948 Italian election: seventy years on." LSE European Politics and Policy (EUROPP) Blog (2018) online.
• Pedaliu, Effie G. H. "The 'British Way to Socialism': British Intervention in the Italian Election of April 1948 and its Aftermath." in Pedaliu, Britain, Italy and the Origins of the Cold War (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2003) pp. 58–95.
• Pons, Silvio. "Stalin, Togliatti, and the origins of the cold war in Europe." Journal of Cold War Studies 3.2 (2001): 3–27. online ^{[ dead link ]}
• Ventresca, Robert A. From Fascism to Democracy: Culture and Politics in the Italian Election of 1948 , (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004). ISBN   0-8020-8768-X

External links

• Pedaliu, Effie GH. "The 18 April 1948 Italian election: seventy years on" LSE European Politics and Policy (EUROPP) Blog (2018)