List of monarchs of Iran

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Bust of Shapur II (r. 310-379) of the Sasanian Empire, the longest-reigning monarch in Iranian history Head of a king MET 65.126.jpg
Bust of Shapur II (r. 310–379) of the Sasanian Empire, the longest-reigning monarch in Iranian history

The monarchs of Iran [a] were the rulers of the various states and civilizations in Iran (Persia) from antiquity until the abolition of the Iranian monarchy in the Iranian Revolution (1979).

Contents

The earliest Iranian empire is generally considered to have been either the Median (c. 727–550 BC) or succeeding Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) After Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire (beginning in 334 BC and mostly complete by 330 BC), much of Iran was under Hellenistic rule for two centuries, primarily under the Seleucid Empire (305–129 BC). Native Iranian rule was revived with the establishment of the Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD). The Parthians were succeeded by the Sasanian Empire (224 AD –651 AD), which ruled Iran until the Muslim conquest.

Medieval Iran was alternated between being ruled by large foreign empires and being divided into several smaller kingdoms. Most of the Sasanian lands were initially incorporated in the Rashidun Caliphate (633–661), as well as the succeeding Umayyad (661–750) and Abbasid (750–1258) caliphates. Diminishing authority of the caliphs led to the Iranian Intermezzo, when various Iranian warlords established their own dynasties and kingdoms, some of which revived Sasanian royal iconography and ideology. In the eleventh century, Iran was conquered by the Turkic (though culturally Persianate) Seljuk Empire (1038–1194), which was followed by succeeding conquests by various Persianate Turkic and Mongolian conquerors, most notably the Khwarazmian (1077–1220), Mongol (1220–1259), and Timurid (1370–1458) empires.

Native Iranian political unity was restored in 1501 through the Safavid Empire (1501–1722). The collapse of the Safavid Empire led to an intermediate period of turmoil, with rule contested between Safavid dynasts as well as the Hotak dynasty (1722–1729). Nader Shah replaced these with the Afsharid Empire (1736–1796), but after his assassination in 1747 the Afsharids competed with the Zand (1751–1794) dynasty under Karim Khan Zand and his successors for supremacy. Iran was reunified by the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925), which was followed by the Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979), the last imperial dynasty of Iran. Since the revolution in 1979, Iran has been ruled by theocratic supreme leaders.

Ancient Iran (c. 727 BC–AD 651)

Medes (c. 678–550 BC)

The "Median Empire" according to Herodotus Median (greatest extent).svg
The "Median Empire" according to Herodotus

The Median dynasty is traditionally considered to have ruled the earliest Iranian state. [4] [5] [6] Whether the Medes ruled an imperial state or merely a loose tribal confederation is disputed among historians. [7] Median history is reconstructed almost solely through ancient Greek sources (particularly Herodotus) and disregards Near Eastern sources, which are fragmentary and do not support the existence of a unified Median Empire. [8] There is also no material or textual evidence left behind by the supposed empire itself. [9] [b] The chronology and names of the Median kings mainly derives from the work of Herodotus. [10] [c]

No ruling title is securely attested for the Median rulers. They might have used the title xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām ("King of Kings"). [11] Ecbatana was the Median capital. [12]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Deioces c. 727–675 BC [13]
(c. 52 years)		First king of the Medes according to Herodotus. Perhaps elected by popular assembly. [14]
Phraortes c. 674–653 BC [13]
(c. 21 years)		Son of Deioces [15]
Interregnum c. 652 – 625 BC. [13] The Medes were invaded by Scythians, perhaps under a ruler named Madyes, who established some form of hegemony. [16] The Scythian rulers were defeated by Cyaxares after about three decades, restoring the Medes to their previous power. [17]
Qyzqapan tomb relief 2.jpg Cyaxares c. 624–585 BC [13]
(c. 39 years)		Son of Phraortes [15]
King Astyages submitting to Cyrus.jpg Astyages c. 584 [13] –550 BC [18]
(c. 34 years)		Son of Cyaxares [15]
Later pretenders (521 BC)
PortraitNameTenureSuccession
Behistun Relief Phraortes.jpg Phraortes II 521 BC [19]
(less than a year)		Rebel in Media against Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire. Claimed kinship with Cyaxares. [19]
Behistun Relief, Tritantaechmes.jpg Tritantaechmes 521 BC [19]
(less than a year)		Rebel in Sagartia against Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire. Claimed kinship with Cyaxares. [19]

Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)

The Achaemenid Empire under Darius the Great Achaemenid (greatest extent).svg
The Achaemenid Empire under Darius the Great

The Achaemenid dynasty originated as local rulers of Anshan under Median suzerainty. They are attributed various ancestors in later legends, including an eponymous figure called "Achaemenes". The earliest securely historical Achaemenid ruler is Cyrus I, king of Anshan in the second half of the seventh century BC. [20] The Achaemenids united all Persian tribes under Cyrus I's son Cambyses I. Under Cambyses I's son, Cyrus II, the Achaemenids defeated the Medes and established the Achaemenid Empire, [20] the largest ever Iranian state. [7]

The standard title used by Achaemenid rulers in Iran from Cyrus II onwards was xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām, xšāyaθiya dahyūnām ("King of Kings, King of the Lands"). [21] The royal title varied in other parts of the empire. [d] The Achaemenids had several royal cities, including Pasargadae, Susa, Ecbatana, Babylon, Bactra, and Persepolis. [23]

Early local rulers in Anshan (c. 620–550 BC)
PortraitNameReignSuccession
Cyrus I on horseback, seal.png Cyrus I c. 620–590 BC [24]
(c. 30 years)		Earliest historical Achaemenid ruler [20]
Cambyses I c. 590–559 BC [24]
(c. 31 years)		Son of Cyrus I [20]
Image from page 165 of "History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia and Assyria" (1903) (14584256867).jpg Cyrus II c. 559 [24] –550 BC [18]
(c. 9 years)		Son of Cambyses I [20]
PortraitNameReignSuccession
Image from page 165 of "History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia and Assyria" (1903) (14584256867).jpg Cyrus II
the Great		c. 550 [18] – November (?) 530 BC [25]
(c. 20 years)		Defeated Astyages and captured Ecbatana c. 550 BC. [18] Married Amytis, daughter of Astyages, according to ancient Greek historians. [26]
Cambyses II of Persia.jpg Cambyses II August 530 – July 522 BC [25]
(7 years and 10 or 11 months)		Son of Cyrus II [20]
Gaumata portrait on the Behistun inscription.jpg Bardiya 1 July – 29 September 522 BC [25]
(2 months and 28 days)		Son of Cyrus II (possibly an impostor). [27] Revolted against Cambyses on 11 March 522 BC and proclaimed himself ruler on 1 July. [25]
Portrait of Darius the Great at Behistun.jpg Darius I
the Great		29 September 522 [25] – October 486 BC [28]
(36 years and 0 or 1 month)		Claimed descent from Teispes (supposed father of Cyrus I). Seized the throne from Bardiya. [29]
National Meusem Darafsh 37.JPG Xerxes I
the Great		October 486 [28] – August 465 BC [30]
(20 years and 9 or 10 months)		Son of Darius I [31] and Atossa (daughter of Cyrus II) [32]
Relief of Artaxerxes I, from his tomb in Naqsh-e Rustam.jpg Artaxerxes I
Longimanus		August 465 [30] – c. December 424 BC [33]
(c. 41 years and 4 months)		Son of Xerxes I [34]
Coin of Achaemenid Empire (Xerxes II to Artaxerxes II) (Cropped).jpg Xerxes II c. December 424 – c. January 423 BC [33]
(45 days) [33] 		Son of Artaxerxes I [33]
Daric coin of the Achaemenid Empire (Xerxes II to Artaxerxes II) (Cropped).jpg Sogdianus c. January – February 423 BC [33]
(c. 1 month)		Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I. [33] Seized the throne from Xerxes II. [35]
Darius ii.png Darius II
(Ochus)		February 423 – March 404 BC [30]
(19 years and 0 or 1 month)		Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I. [33] Seized the throne from Sogdianus. [35]
Artaxerxes II relief portrait detail.jpg Artaxerxes II
(Arsakes)		March 404 [30] – spring (?) 358 BC [36]
(46 years)		Son of Darius II [37]
Rock relief of Artaxerxes III in Persepolis.jpg Artaxerxes III
(Ochus)		Spring (?) 358 – September (?) 338 BC [38]
(20 years)		Son of Artaxerxes II [39]
Artaxerxes IV Arses.jpg Artaxerxes IV
(Arses)		September (?) 338 – June 336 BC [38]
(2 years)		Son of Artaxerxes III [40]
Darius III mosaic.jpg Darius III
(Artashata)		June 336 [38] – July 330 BC [41]
(6 years)		Great-grandson of Artaxerxes II [40]
Later pretenders (330–329 BC)
PortraitNameTenureSuccession
Alexander Executes Janusiyar and Mahiyar, the Slayers of Darius", Folio from a Shahnama (Book of Kings) of Firdausi MET (cropped).jpg Artaxerxes V
(Bessus)		July 330 [41] – spring 329 BC [42]
(less than a year)		 Satrap of Bactria, [42] part of the Achaemenid dynasty. [41] Murdered Darius III and proclaimed himself as his successor, ruling several eastern satrapies in opposition to Alexander the Great. [41]

Hellenistic rule (331–129 BC)

Alexander's empire (331–305 BC)

Alexander the Great's empire Macedonia (ancient kingdom, greatest extent).svg
Alexander the Great's empire

The Achaemenid Empire was defeated and conquered by Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, in 331 [43] –329 BC. [42] After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the Wars of the Diadochi broke out between his successors, leading to the rapid disintegration of the empire. [7]

Alexander did not assume the former Achaemenid royal title of 'King of Kings'. [44] [45] His main royal title, appearing on coins intended for his Asian territories, was instead basileus ("king"). [44] To mark his rule over the Achaemenid territories he also sometimes used the new title "Lord of Asia" (sometimes "King of Asia"). [44] The only royal title recorded for Alexander's two immediate heirs is basileus. [46] Alexander ruled his empire from Babylon [47] and planned to establish Babylon and Alexandria in Egypt as the twin imperial capitals. [43] From 319 BC onwards, Alexander's heirs resided in Macedonia while the regency in Asia was contested by several generals. [48]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Alexander the Great mosaic (cropped).jpg Alexander [e]
the Great		1 October 331 [43] [f] – 10/11 June 323 BC [49]
(7 years, 8 months and 10/11 days)		Conquered the Achaemenid Empire [7]
Philip Arrhidaeus Pharaoh.jpg Philip Arrhidaeus [g] June 323 – late 317 BC [49]
(6 years)		Brother of Alexander the Great [50]
Alexander Aegus Pharaoh.jpg Alexander Aegus [h] August 323 [49] – 309 BC [51] (305 BC) [i]
(14 years, recognized for 18 years)		Son of Alexander the Great [50]

Seleucid Empire (305–129 BC)

The Seleucid Empire under Seleucus I Nicator Seleucid Empire (greatest extent).svg
The Seleucid Empire under Seleucus I Nicator

The main Hellenistic successors of Alexander's empire in Iran were the Seleucids, descendants of the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator and the Iranian noblewoman Apama. [52] Seleucus seized most of the east, including Babylonia, in the Wars of the Diadochi and was firmly in control in the region from 312 BC onwards. [53] After Alexander IV's death became public knowledge in 305 BC, Seleucus proclaimed himself king. [54]

The main royal title used by the Seleucids was basileus, as was the case for the other Macedonian successor kingdoms (such as the Ptolemaic Kingdom). [55] Only two Seleucid rulers (Antiochus III, 223–187 BC, and Antiochus VII, 139–129 BC) used the greater megas basileus ('Great King'), [56] the style applied to Achaemenid kings in ancient Greek sources. [21] The Seleucids at first ruled from Seleucia in Mesopotamia, though Antioch was soon made the main capital. [57]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Seleucos Nicator Louvre Ma3597 n3.jpg Seleucus I
Nicator		305 [54] – September 280 BC [58]
(25 years)		Former general under Alexander the Great. Held most of the east of his empire from 312 BC onwards [53] and proclaimed king in 305 BC. [54]
Antiochos I Soter tetradrachm obverse.jpg Antiochus I
Soter		September 280 – 261 BC [58]
(19 years)		Son of Seleucus I [58]
Antiochos II Theos portrait.jpg Antiochus II
Theos		261–246 BC [58]
(15 years)		Son of Antiochus I [58]
Coin of Seleucus II Callinicus (cropped), Antioch mint.jpg Seleucus II
Callinicus		246–226 BC [58]
(20 years)		Son of Antiochus II [58]
Seleukos III Keraunos, Tetradrachm, 226-223 BC, HGC 3-414c (obverse).jpg Seleucus III
Ceraunus		226–223 BC [58]
(3 years)		Son of Seleucus II [58]
Male head wearing a head-band resembling king of Syria Antiochus III (223-187 BC), late 1st century BC-early 1st century AD, Louvre Museum (7462828632).jpg Antiochus III
the Great		223–187 BC [58]
(36 years)		Son of Seleucus II [58]
Seleukos IV tetradrachm obverse.jpg Seleucus IV
Philopator		187–175 BC [58]
(12 years)		Son of Antiochus III [58]
Antiochus IV Epiphanes - Altes Museum - Berlin - Germany 2017.jpg Antiochus IV
Epiphanes		175 – late 164 BC [58]
(11 years)		Son of Antiochus III [58]
Antiochos V Eupator tetradrachm obverse.jpg Antiochus V
Eupator		Late 164 – 162 BC [58]
(2 years)		Son of Antiochus IV [58]
Demetrios I Soter, Tetradrachm, 162-150 BC, SC 1611.3 Obverse.jpg Demetrius I
Soter		162–150 BC [58]
(12 years)		Son of Seleucus IV. Overthrew Antiochus IV. [58]
Coin of Alexander I Balas, Antioch mint.jpg Alexander
Balas		152–145 BC [58]
(7 years)		Alleged son of Antiochus IV. Rival king against Demetrius I, supported by the Roman Empire. [58]
Antiochus VI - face.jpg Antiochus VI
Dionysus		145–142 BC [58]
(3 years)		Son of Alexander Balas [58]
Coin of Demetrius II Nicator (cropped), Ptolemais in Phoenicia mint.jpg Demetrius II
Nicator		147–139 BC [58]
(8 years)		Son of Demetrius I. Revolted against Alexander Balas with support from the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Sole king after Antiochus VI's death. [58]
Antiochos VII.jpg Antiochus VII
Sidetes		139–129 BC [58]
(10 years)		Son of Demetrius I [58]

Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD)

The Parthian Empire under Mithridates II Parthian Empire (greatest extent).svg
The Parthian Empire under Mithridates II

The Arsacids of Parthia, [54] initially Seleucid vassals, [59] originated as leaders of the Iranian Parni tribe in the northeastern steppes. [60] The Parthians gradually challenged Seleucid rule over Iran. [61] Parthian control of Iran was secured through the c. 142 BC conquest of Babylonia. [54] [61] Although fighting continued for years, the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes in 129 BC effectively marked the collapse of the Seleucid Empire, [61] which then lingered on as a rump state in Syria until conquered by the Roman Empire in the 60s BC. [54]

The Parthians presented themselves as heirs of the Achaemenids, though ruled a much more decentralized state. [60] Greek inscriptions were used on Parthian coins until the time of Vologases I (AD 51–78). [62] Early Parthian rulers used the name of their dynastic founder (Arsaces) as a title. Their coins also have the legend krny (probably short for autokrator, i.e. autocrat or sole ruler). [62] From the conquest of Babylonia onwards, rulers used basileus megas ('Great King'). [61] Mithridates II (123–91 BC) adopted the Achaemenid 'King of Kings' (rendered in Greek as basileus basileon). After him, this title was used only by Mithridates IV (57–54 BC) and Orodes II (57–37 BC) before becoming a standard part of the Parthian title from the time of Phraates IV (26–2 BC) onwards. [63] The title was used in its Persian form (šāhān šāh) after Greek ceased being used. [64] The first Parthian capital was at Nisa in Parthia. In 217 BC, the capital was moved to Qumis and in 50 BC a multi-capital system was established, with royal residences at Ctesiphon, Ecbatana, and Ray. [65]

This list omits rival kings and claimants. Because of poor source material there are alternate chronologies, genealogies, and enumerations of Parthian rulers, with some differences. See the list of monarchs of Parthia.

Early local rulers in Parthia (c. 250–142 BC)
PortraitNameReignSuccession
Coin of Arsaces I (1), Nisa mint (cropped).jpg Arsaces I c. 250/247–217 BC [66]
(30–33 years)		Conquered Parthia from the Seleucid satrap Andragoras [60]
Arsaces II coin crop.png Arsaces II c. 217–191 BC [66]
(26 years)		Son of Arsaces I [66]
Priapatius coin.png Priapatius c. 191–176 BC [66]
(15 years)		Grandson of a brother of Arsaces I [66]
Phraates I coin.png Phraates I c. 176–171 BC [66]
(5 years)		Son of Priapatius [66]
Coin of Mithradates I of Parthia, Seleucia mint.jpg Mithridates I c. 171 [66] –142 BC [54] [j]
(29 years)		Son of Priapatius [66]
PortraitNameReignSuccession
Coin of Mithradates I of Parthia, Seleucia mint.jpg Mithridates I
the Great		c. 142 [54] [j] –132 BC [66]
(c. 10 years)		Established Parthia as an empire. [67] Conquered the Iranian plateau in the 160s BC, [60] followed by conquests of Babylonia (142 BC), [54] Media (141 BC), and Persis (139 BC). [66]
Coin of Phraates II (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg Phraates II c. 132–127 BC [66]
(5 years)		Son of Mithridates I [66]
Coin of Artabanus I of Parthia (cropped, part 2), Seleucia mint.jpg Artabanus I [k] c. 127–124/123 BC [66]
(3–4 years)		Son of Priapatius (and brother of Mithridates I) [66]
Coin of Mithradates II of Parthia (cropped, part 2), Ecbatana mint.jpg Mithridates II
the Great		c. 123–91 BC [66]
(c. 32 years)		Son of Artabanus I [66]
Coin of Gotarzes I (2, cropped), Ectbatana mint.jpg Gotarzes I 91–87(?) BC [66]
(c. 4 years)		Son of Priapatius (and brother of Mithridates I and Artabanus I) [66]
Tetradrachm of the Parthian monarch Orodes I, Seleucia mint.jpg Orodes I 87–79(?) BC [66]
(c. 8 years)		Son of Gotarzes I or Mithridates II (?) [69]
Sinatruces transparent.png Sinatruces c. 78–70 BC [66]
(c. 8 years)		Son of Mithridates I, previously a rival claimant c. 91–88 BC [66]
Drachm of Phraates III, Ecbatana mint.jpg Phraates III 70–57 BC [66]
(13 years)		Son of Sinatruces [66]
Coin of Mithridates IV (cropped).jpg Mithridates III [l] 57–54 BC [66]
(3 years)		Son of Phraates III. [66] Co-ruler with his brother Orodes II until killed in 54 BC. [66]
Coin of Orodes II, Mithradatkert (Nisa) mint.jpg Orodes II 57–37 BC [66]
(20 years)		Son of Phraates III [66]
Drachm of Phraates IV, Mithradatkirt mint.jpg Phraates IV 37–32(?) BC [66] (1st reign)
(5 years?)		Son of Orodes II [66]
Tiridates II coin.png Tiridates [m] 32–31(?) BC [66] (1st reign)
(1 year?)		Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage [71]
Drachm of Phraates IV, Mithradatkirt mint.jpg Phraates IV 31–28(?) BC [66] (2nd reign)
(3 years?)		Retook the throne [66]
Tiridates II coin.png Tiridates [m] 28–26(?) BC [66] (2nd reign)
(2 years?)		Retook the throne [66]
Drachm of Phraates IV, Mithradatkirt mint.jpg Phraates IV 26(?)–2 BC [66] (3rd reign)
(24 years?)		Retook the throne [66]
Coin of Phraatakes (Phraates V), Seleucia mint (cropped).jpg Phraates V 2 BC – AD 4(?) [72]
(6 years?)		Son of Phraates IV, co-ruler with Musa [72]
The portrait of Musa of Parthia on the reverse of a drachm, Ecbatana mint.jpg Musa 2 BC – AD 4(?) [72]
(6 years?)		Widow of Phraates IV, co-ruler with Phraates V. [72] First of only four women to rule in Iranian history. [n]
Orodes III coin.png Orodes III 4(?)–6/7 [72]
(2/3 years?)		Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage [73]
Tetradrachm of Vonones I, Seleucia mint.jpg Vonones I 6/7–11/12 [72]
(4–6 years)		Son of Phraates IV, nominated as king by the Roman Empire [72]
Tetradrachm of Artabanus II, Seleucia mint.jpg Artabanus II [o] 11/12–38 [72]
(26/27 years)		Cousin of Vonones [72]
Tetradrachm of Gotarzes II, minted in 49.jpg Gotarzes II 38–51 [72]
(13 years)		Son of Artabanus (?) [72]
Coin of Vardanes I (cropped, 2), Seleucia mint.jpg Vardanes 39–45/46 [72]
(6/7 years)		Son of Artabanus (?). [72] Rival and later co-ruler of the empire with Gotarzes. [74]
Coin of Vonones II, minted at Hamadan.jpg Vonones II 51 [75]
(briefly)		Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage [75]
Tetradrachm of Vologases I, minted at Seleucia.jpg Vologases I 51–78 [72]
(27 years)		Son of Vardanes [72]
Coin of Pacorus II (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg Pacorus [p] 78–79 [72] (1st reign)
(1 year)		Son of Vologases I [76]
Coin of Artabanus III of Parthia (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg Artabanus III [q] 79–81 [72]
(2 years)		Son or brother of Vologases I [77]
Coin of Pacorus II (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg Pacorus [p] 81–115 [72] (2nd reign)
(34 years)		Retook the throne [72]
Coin of Vologases III (cropped), Seleucia mint.jpg Vologases II [r] 115–116 [72]
(1 year)		Son of Pacorus [78]
Parthamaspates coin.png Parthamaspates 116–117 [72]
(1 year)		Grandson of Pacorus, installed as king by the Roman Empire [79]
Coin of Osroes I (cropped), Ecbatana mint.jpg Osroes 117–128 [72]
(11 years)		Son of Pacorus and father of Parthamaspates [80]
Coin of Mithridates V of Parthia, Ecbatana mint.jpg Mithridates IV [s] 128–148 [72]
(20 years)		Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage [79]
Tetradrachm of Vologases IV, minted at Seleucia in 153.jpg Vologases III [t] 148–191 [72]
(43 years)		Son of Mithridates IV [79]
Coin of Vologases V (cutted out), Hamadan mint.jpg Vologases IV [u] 191–207 [72]
(16 years)		Son of Vologases III [81]
Coin of Vologases VI of Parthia (cropped), Ecbatana mint.jpg Vologases V [v] 207–213 [72]
(6 years)		Son of Vologases IV. [72] Possibly still in control of some parts of the empire by 228. [82]
Drachm of Artabanus IV (2), Hamadan mint.jpg Artabanus IV [w] 213 [72] –224 [83]
(11 years)		Son of Vologases IV. [83] Fought with Vologases V over control of the empire. [83]

Sasanian Empire (224 AD–651 AD)

The Sasanian Empire under Khosrow II Sasanian Empire (greatest extent).svg
The Sasanian Empire under Khosrow II

The Sasanian dynasty originated as kings of Persis, a Parthian vassal kingdom, and claimed Achaemenid descent. In 224–226, the Sasanian dynast Ardashir I led a revolt against the Parthians, weakened in a recent civil war, and took control of the empire. Ardashir presented himself as a restorer of both regional unity and Achaemenid glory. [84] The Sasanian Empire was a significantly more militarily powerful, centralized, and aggressive state than the Parthian Empire and was also marked by a state-backed and less heterodox form of the Zoroastrian religion. [85]

Sasanian kings continued to use the title šāhān šāh ('King of Kings'). [86] The title was extended by Ardashir to šāhān šāh ērān ('King of Kings of Iran') [87] and extended again by his son Shapur I (240–270) to šāhān šāh ērān ud anērān ('King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran'). [87] [88] Sasanian queens ruled with the title bānbišnān bānbišn ērān ud anērān ('Queen of Queens of Iran and non-Iran'). [89] Ctesiphon was the capital of the Sasanian Empire. [90]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Coin of Ardashir I (phase 3), Hamadan mint.jpg Ardashir I
the Unifier		224 – May 240 [91] [92]
(16 years)		Defeated Artabanus IV and took control of the empire [84]
ShapurICoinHistoryofIran.jpg Shapur I May 240 – May 270 [91]
(30 years)		Son of Ardashir I [91]
HormizdICoinHistoryofIran.jpg Hormizd I May 270 – June 271 [91]
(1 year and 1 month)		Son of Shapur I [91]
Coin of Bahram I (cropped).jpg Bahram I June 271 – 274 [91]
(3 years)		Son of Shapur I [91]
Silver coin of Bahram II (cropped).jpg Bahram II 274–293 [90]
(19 years)		Son of Bahram I [90]
Bahram III.jpg Bahram III 293 [90]
(4 months)		Son or cousin of Bahram II [90]
NarsehCoin2.jpg Narseh 293–302 [90]
(9 years)		Son of Shapur I [90]
Coin of the Sasanian king Hormizd II (1, cropped).jpg Hormizd II 303–309/310 [90]
(6/7 years)		Son of Narseh [90]
Adur Narseh
(Narseh II)		309/310 [92]
(briefly)		Son of Hormizd II [92]
The portrait of Shapur II on the obverse of a silver drachm, struck circa 309-320 (crop).png Shapur II
the Great		310–379 [90]
(69 years)		Son of Hormizd II, acclaimed ruler at birth. [90] The longest-reigning Iranian monarch.
ArdashirIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg Ardashir II
the Beneficent		379–383 [90]
(4 years)		Son of Hormizd II [90]
Coin of Shapur III, Merv mint.jpg Shapur III 383–388 [90]
(5 years)		Son of Shapur II [90]
Coin of Bahram IV (cropped), Herat mint.jpg Bahram IV 388–399 [90]
(11 years)		Son of Shapur II [90]
YazdegerdICroppedCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Yazdegerd I
the Sinner		399–420 [90]
(21 years)		Son of Shapur III [90]
Drachm of Shapur IV.jpg Shapur IV 420 [93]
(briefly)		Son of Yazdegerd I [93]
Khosrow (I) [x] 420 [93]
(briefly)		Son of Bahram IV [93]
Drachma of Bahram V - cropped.jpg Bahram V
the Onager 		420–438 [90]
(18 years)		Son of Yazdegerd I [90]
YazdegerdIICroppedCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Yazdegerd II 438–457 [90]
(19 years)		Son of Bahram V [90]
King Hormizd II or Hormizd III Hunting Lions, 400-600.jpg Hormizd III 457 [90]
(briefly)		Son of Yazdegerd II [90]
PerozICroppedCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Peroz I 457–484 [90]
(27 years)		Son of Yazdegerd II [90]
Coin of the Sasanian king Balash from Susa.jpg Balash 484–488 [90]
(4 years)		Son of Yazdegerd II [90]
Gold coin of Kavad I, possibly minted at Susa, in 529 or 530.jpg Kavad I 488–497 [90] (1st reign)
(9 years)		Son of Peroz [90]
Coin of the Sasanian king Jamasp from Susa.jpg Jamasp 497–499 [90]
(2 years)		Son of Peroz [90]
Gold coin of Kavad I, possibly minted at Susa, in 529 or 530.jpg Kavad I 499–531 [90] (2nd reign)
(32 years)		Restored to the throne with Hepthalite support [90]
Plate of the Sasanian king Khosrow I Anushirvan.jpg Khosrow I
Anushirvan ("the Immortal Soul")		531–579 [90]
(48 years)		Son of Kavad I [90]
Drachma of Hormidz IV - cropped.jpg Hormizd IV 579–590 [94]
(11 years)		Son of Khosrow I [90]
BahramChobinCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Bahram VI Chobin 590–591 [94]
(1 year)		General of Parthian descent (House of Mihran) [95]
KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg Khosrow II
Parviz ("the Victorious")		June 590 – 28 February 628 [90]
(37 years and 7 or 8 months)		Son of Hormizd IV [90]
Coin of Vistahm, minted at Ray in 595 or 596.jpg Vistahm 591–597 [94]
(6 years, usurper in the east)		General of Parthian descent (House of Ispahbudhan) and maternal uncle of Khosrow II. Rival king. [96]
Coin of the Sasanian king Kavadh II (cropped), minted at Ray in 628.jpg Kavad II 28 February 628 – 628 [90]
(less than a year)		Son of Khosrow II, overthrew his father [97]
ArdashirIIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg Ardashir III 628–630 [98]
(2 years)		Cousin [98] or son [99] of Kavad II
ShahrbarazCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Shahrbaraz 630 [98]
(less than a year)		General of Parthian descent (House of Mihran) [100]
XusravIIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg Khosrow III 630 [98]
(less than a year)		Nephew of Khosrow II [98]
BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Boran 630 [101]
(less than a year)		Daughter of Khosrow II. [98] Second of only four women to rule in Iranian history. [y]
Shapur V 630 [102]
(less than a year)		Son of Shahrbaraz [102]
Obverse coin of Azarmidokht.jpg Azarmidokht 630–631 [103]
(1 year)		Daughter of Khosrow II. [92] Third of only four women to rule in Iranian history. [z]
FarrokhHormizdVCoin.jpg Farrukh Hormizd V 631–632 [98]
(1 year)		General of Parthian descent (House of Ispahbudhan). Attempted to seize the throne after Azarmidokht declined his marriage proposal. [103]
HormizdVICoinHistoryofIran.jpg Hormizd VI 630–632 [104]
(2 years, usurper in Nisibis)		Grandson of Khosow II. [104] Proclaimed ruler by the Sasanian troops stationed at Nisibis. [104]
KhosrauIVCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Khosrow IV 632 [98]
(less than a year)		Great-nephew of Hormizd IV [98]
Peroz II 632–632/633 [98]
(1 year?)		Brother of Khosrow IV [98]
FarrukhzadKhosrauVCoin - Cropped.jpg Farrukhzad Khosrow V 632/633–c. 633 [98]
(1 year?)		Brother of Hormizd V [98]
YazdegerdIIICoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg Yazdegerd III c. 633–651 [98]
(c. 18 years)		Grandson of Khosrow II [92]
Later pretenders (651–731)
PortraitNameTenureSuccession
Headless Statue of Foreign Envoy, Qianling Mausoleum.jpg Peroz III 651–678/679 [105]
(27/28 years)		Son of Yazdegerd III, lived in exile in China (Tang dynasty) and led Iranian resistance against the Arabs. Recognized by the Tang dynasty as "king of Persia". [106] Ruled a Tang-supported Iranian kingdom in Sistan or Tokharistan [107] 661–674. [108]
Narsieh
(Narseh III)		678/679 [105] –after 708/709 [109]
(over 20 years)		Son and successor of Peroz III. [105] Crowned by the Chinese general Pei Xingjian and placed in charge of Tokharistan. Narsieh defended the region for twenty years until defeated by the Arabs in 708/709, whereafter he returned to China. [109]
Bó Qiāng Huó [aa] fl. 723 [110] Son of Narsieh. [110] Recorded in Chinese sources as "king of Persia" and as being active in Tokharistan against the Arabs in 723. [110]
Mù Shānuò [ab] fl. 726–731 [110] Recorded in Chinese sources as "king of Persia" and as being active in Tokharistan against the Arabs in 726 and 731. [110] Names of Sasanian claimants disappear from Chinese sources after 731. [110]

Minor kingdoms and dynasties

Medieval Iran (651–1501)

The fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 was followed by nearly a millennium without Iranian political unity, until the rise of the Safavid Empire in 1501. [111] [112] In the intervening period, the territories formerly part of the ancient Iranian empires were variously subjected to larger foreign empires or divided into several smaller political units. [111] Although no unified Iranian state existed, shared Iranian identity, culture, and language continued to survive and develop throughout the Middle Ages. [111] [112]

The medieval dynasties and kingdoms featured in this list follow a 2012 list of Iranian ruling dynasties by the Iranologist Touraj Daryaee. [113]

Arab (caliphal) rule (638–861)

Rashidun Caliphate (638–661)

The Rashidun Caliphate under Uthman Rashidun Caliphate (greatest extent).svg
The Rashidun Caliphate under Uthman

The Muslim conquest of Persia began when the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate attacked parts of Sasanian Asoristan in 633. [114] In 637/638, the Sasanians lost Mesopotamia [98] and Persia itself was conquered in 640 [98] –650. [115] By the time of Yazdegerd III's death in 651, the Sasanians only retained Bactria. [98] Following the Muslim victory, the Sasanian Empire was dissolved and Iran came under the direct rule of the Islamic caliphs. [116] Although the caliphs implemented forms of ethnic stratification that discriminated against Iranians and their culture, particularly during the later Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), they also adopted much of the old Sasanian administrative model to govern their empire. [117]

The style of the caliphs was amīr al-mu'minīn ("commander of the faithful"). [118] An additional title, khalīfat Allāh ("deputy of God"), was also introduced beginning with Uthman (644–656). [119] The caliphate was initially ruled from Medina. Under Ali, the capital was transferred to Kufa in Iraq. [120]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Umar al-Farooq Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png Umar 637/638 [98] – 3 November 644 [121]
(6/7 years)		Second Islamic caliph. [122] Oversaw the initial Muslim conquest of Persia. [114]
Uthman Dhul-nurayn Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png Uthman 3 November 644 – 17 June 656 [123]
(11 years, 7 months and 14 days)		Chosen by tribal acclamation. Challenged by Ali. [122]
AliSVG.svg Ali 18 June 656 – 28 January 661 [124]
(4 years, 7 months and 10 days)		Caliph after Uthman's assassination. Challenged by Mu'awiya. [122]
Hasan Masjid an-Nabawi Calligraphy.png Hasan 28 January – August 661 [124]
(6 or 7 months)		Son of Ali and grandson of Muhammad. [125] Challenged by Mu'awiya. [126]

Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)

The Umayyad Caliphate under Umar II Umayyad Caliphate (greatest extent).svg
The Umayyad Caliphate under Umar II

The Umayyad Caliphate was established by Mu'awiya I, governor of Syria under the Rashidun caliphs. Mu'awiya opposed the acclamations of Ali and Hasan as caliphs, [120] leading to the civil war known as the First Fitna (656–661). [122] Mu'awiya was victorious and became undisputed caliph after Hasan relinquished his claims. [120]

Umayyad caliphs continued to use the styles amīr al-mu'minīn and khalīfat Allāh. [127] The Umayyad Caliphate was ruled from Damascus, though the capital was briefly transferred to Harran under the last caliph, Marwan II. [128]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Arab-Sasanian coin of Muawiyah I, struck at the Fasa mint in Darabjird (Fars).jpg Mu'awiya I July/August 661 – April/May 680 [129]
(18 years and 9 months)		Seized power in the First Fitna [122]
Umayyad Caliphate. temp. Yazid I ibn Mu'awiya. AH 60-64 AD 680-683.jpg Yazid I April/May 680 – 11 November 683 [129]
(3 years and 6 or 7 months)		Son of Mu'awiya I [92]
Umayyad Caliphate. temp. Mu'awiya II ibn Yazid. AH 64 AD 683-684.jpg Mu'awiya II 11 November 683 – 22 June 684 [129]
(7 months and 11 days)		Son of Yazid I [92]
Drachm from Yazid I to Marwan I; Talha governor.jpg Marwan I 22 June 684 – 7 May 685 [129]
(10 months and 15 days)		Cousin of Mu'awiya I [92]
Arab-Sasanian coin (issue of Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra) struck during the reign of 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.jpg Abd al-Malik 7 May 685 – 8 October 705 [129]
(20 years, 5 months and 1 day)		Son of Marwan I [130]
Dinar of al-Walid I.jpg al-Walid I 8 October 705 – 25 February 715 [129]
(9 years, 4 months and 17 days)		Son of Abd al-Malik [130]
Gold dinar of Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, 715-716.jpg Sulayman 25 February 715 – 22 September 717 [129]
(2 years, 6 months and 28 days)		Son of Abd al-Malik [130]
Gold dinar of Umar II.jpg Umar II 22 September 717 – 5 February 720 [129]
(2 years, 4 months and 14 days)		Son of Marwan I [130]
Yazid II. Dinar.jpg Yazid II 5 February 720 – 28 January 724 [129]
(3 years, 11 months and 23 days)		Son of Abd al-Malik [130]
Dihrem of Hisham ibn 'Abd al-Malik.jpg Hisham 28 January 724 – 6 February 743 [129]
(19 years and 9 days)		Son of Abd al-Malik [130]
Umayyad fresco of Prince (future caliph) Walid bin Yazid.jpg al-Walid II 6 February 743 – 16 April 744 [129]
(1 year, 2 months and 10 days)		Son of Yazid II [130]
Dihrem of Yazid III ibn al-Walid, AH 126.jpg Yazid III 16 April – 20 September 744 [129]
(5 months and 4 days)		Son of al-Walid I [130]
Dihrem of Ibrahim ibn al-Walid.jpg Ibrahim 20 September – 25 November 744 [129]
(2 months and 5 days)		Son of al-Walid I [130]
Dirham of Marwan II ibn Muhammad, AH 127-132.jpg Marwan II 25 November 744 – 750 [129]
(c. 6 years)		Grandson of Marwan I [130]

Abbasid Caliphate (749–861)

The Abbasid Caliphate under al-Mutawakkil Abbasid Caliphate (greatest extent).svg
The Abbasid Caliphate under al-Mutawakkil

Because Mu'awiya took power in civil war, the rights of his and his descendants to the caliphate was long questioned. Anti-Umayyad insurrections were to a large degree supported by non-Arab converts to Islam (especially Iranians) who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into the Abbasid revolution, in which the Umayyads were replaced with the Abbasids, descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas. [131]

Abbasid caliphs continued to use the styles amīr al-mu'minīn and khalīfat Allāh. [127] The Abbasid Caliphate was ruled from Kufa, until the capital was transferred to the newly-founded Baghdad in 762. [132]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Dirhem of al-Saffah, AH 132-136.jpg al-Saffah 6 November 749 – 9 June 754 [133]
(4 years, 7 months and 3 days)		Seized power in the Abbasid revolution [122]
Abbasid Dinar - Al Mansur - 140 AH (758 AD).JPG al-Mansur 9 June 754 – 7 October 775 [133]
(21 years, 3 months and 28 days)		Brother of al-Saffrah [130]
Arab-Sasanian coin of the Tabaristan type issued under Caliph al-Mahdi.jpg al-Mahdi 7 October 775 – 4 August 785 [133]
(9 years, 9 months and 28 days)		Son of al-Mansur [130]
Dirhem of Al-Hadi, AH 170.jpg al-Hadi 4 August 785 – 15 September 786 [133]
(1 year, 1 month and 11 days)		Son of al-Mahdi [130]
Ar-Rashid AV dinar 171AH Harun amir yevlem.jpg Harun al-Rashid 15 September 786 – 24 March 809 [133]
(22 years, 6 months and 9 days)		Son of al-Mahdi [130]
Abbasid Dinar - Al Amin - 195 AH (811 AD).jpg al-Amin 24 March 809 – 27 September 813 [134]
(4 years, 6 months and 3 days)		Son of Harun al-Rashid [130]
Coin of the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun.jpg al-Ma'mun 27 September 813 – 7 August 833 [134]
(19 years, 10 months and 11 days)		Son of Harun al-Rashid [130]
Abbasid Dinar - Al-Mu'tasim-225h.jpg al-Mu'tasim 7 August 833 – 5 January 842 [135]
(8 years, 4 months and 29 days)		Son of Harun al-Rashid [130]
Dinar of al-Wathiq, AH 227-232.jpg al-Wathiq 5 January 842 – 10 August 847 [135]
(5 years, 7 months and 5 days)		Son of al-Mu'tasim [130]
Al-Mutawakkil.png al-Mutawakkil 10 August 847 – 11 December 861 [135]
(14 years, 4 months and 1 day)		Son of al-Mu'tasim. [130] Regarded as the last Abbasid caliph wielding major political power. [136]

Iranian Intermezzo (821–1090)

The political authority of the Abbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the ninth and tenth centuries. [137] In Iran, this led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties, [137] the ousting of Arabs from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance. [138] The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century is referred to as the "Iranian Intermezzo". [138]

The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties. [138] This list only includes major dynasties. Both Daryaee (2012) [113] and Mahendrarajah (2019) [138] list the major dynasties of the period as the Tahirids, Saffarids, Ziyarids, Buyids, and Samanids. Daryaee also includes the Ghaznavids, omitted by Mahendrarajah.

Tahirids (821–873)

The Tahirids at their greatest extent Tahirid dynasty (greatest extent).svg
The Tahirids at their greatest extent

The Tahirids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who governed Khorasan and much of the rest of Iran under the Abbasid caliphs. The Tahirids enjoyed considerable autonomy in practice but were not de jure independent; [139] [140] [141] Tahirid rulers fully acknowledged that they were subordinate viceroys, were always deferential to the caliphs, and regularly forwarded tribute to Baghdad. [141] The Tahirids claimed descent from the Iranian mythological hero Rostam. [142]

As vassals of the Caliphate, the Tahirid rulers used the title amir . [143] The Tahirids initially ruled from Merv. The capital was transferred to Nishapur under Abdallah. [144]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
TahiribnHusaynCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Tahir I 821–822 [145]
(1 year)		Granted governorship of Khorasan by Caliph al-Ma'mun for his service in the Fourth Fitna [144]
Talha ibn Tahir.jpg Talha 822–828 [145]
(6 years)		Son of Tahir I [145]
Abdallah 828–845 [145]
(17 years)		Son of Tahir I [145]
Tahir II 845–862 [145]
(17 years)		Son of Abdallah [145]
Muhammad 862–873 [145]
(11 years)		Son of Tahir II [145]

Saffarids (867–1002)

The Saffarids at their greatest extent Saffarid dynasty (greatest extent).svg
The Saffarids at their greatest extent

The Saffarids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who at their height ruled much of Iran, and at times even reached into modern-day Iraq, from their base of power in Sistan. [141] Although the dynastic founder Ya'qub (867–879) claimed Sasanian descent, [146] the Saffarid dynasty originated as local ruffians [145] and their power was attained solely through military might. [141] The Saffarid state expanded aggressively under the rule of Ya'qub and Amr I (879–901), under which the Tahirids were defeated and the Abbasid Caliphate was forced to confirm Saffarid control over various Iranian territories. [141]

Since they were nominally Abbasid subordinates, Saffarid rulers used the title amir . [141] Zaranj served as the Saffarid capital. [141]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Ya'qub al-Layth's Silver Dirham.jpg Ya'qub 867–879 [145]
(1 year)		Local ruffian [145] who established control over Sistan, Khorasan, and beyond [141]
Amr ibn al-Layth.jpg Amr I 879–901 [145]
(6 years)		Brother of Ya'qub [145]
Tahir 901–909 [145]
(17 years)		Grandson of Amr I [145]
al-Layth 909–910 [145]
(1 year)		Nephew of Ya'qub and Amr I [145]
Muhammad 910–911 [145]
(1 year)		Brother of al-Layth [145]
al-Mu'addal 911 [141]
(less than a year)		Brother of al-Layth [141]
Amr II 912–913 [145]
(1 year)		Great-grandson of Amr I [145]
Interregnum 913–923: [141] occupation by the Samanids. [141]
AhmadIbnMuhammadSaffaridCoin.jpg Ahmad 923–963 [145]
(40 years)		Married to a granddaughter of Amr I [145]
KhalafibnAhmadCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Khalaf 963–1002 [145]
(39 years)		Son of Ahmad [145]

Ziyarids (927–1090)

The Ziyarids at their greatest extent Ziyarid dynasty (greatest extent).svg
The Ziyarids at their greatest extent

The Ziyarids were a dynasty of Iranian rulers established in northern Iran by Mardavij, a local mountain chief and mercenary who created an extensive kingdom in the late 920s and early 930s. Mardavij claimed descent from local pre-Islamic nobility and aspired to capture Baghdad, overthrow the Abbasids, and restore both the pre-651 empire as well as the Zoroastrian religion. [147] These aspirations came to an end with Mardavij's murder by his Turkic military slaves in 934/935. [147] Most of the Ziyarid realm was lost, except for territories surrounding the Caspian Sea, inherited by Mardavij's Islamic relatives. [148]

Mardavij may have revived the Sasanian ruling title šāhānšāh ('King of Kings') since later Buyid writers attribute the title to him. [146] [ac] Later Ziyarid rulers used the title amir . [150] The Ziyarids went through a succession of capitals in northern Iran, including Ray, Amol, and Gorgan. [147]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
MardavijCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Mardavij 927/928–934/935 [151]
(7 years)		Mountain chief and mercenary who took control of much of northern Iran [147]
Vushmgir 934/935–966/967 [151]
(32 years)		Brother of Mardavij [151]
Bisutun of Ziyarid.jpg Bisutun 966/967–977/978 [151]
(11 years)		Son of Vushmgir [151]
Coin of Qabus, minted in Jurjan (Gorgan).jpg Qabus 977/978–1012/1013 (in exile 981–998) [151]
(35 years)		Son of Vushmgir [151]
Manuchihr 1012/1013–1029/1030 [151]
(17 years)		Son of Qabus [151]
Anushirvan 1029/1030–1049/1050 [151]
(20 years)		Son of Manuchihr [151]
Keikavus 1049/1050–? [151] Cousin of Anushirvan [151]
Gilanshah ?–1090/1091 [151] Son of Keikavus [151]

Buyids (934–1062)

The Buyids at their greatest extent Buyid Dynasty (greatest extent).svg
The Buyids at their greatest extent

The Buyids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by three brothers who had served under Mardavij (the first Ziyarid ruler). After Mardavij's murder, the three carved out their own realm out of the southern Ziyarid territories. [148] The Buyid state was composed of three principalities ruled by three branches of the family, sometimes with divergent goals, rather than a unified realm. [148] The Buyids came to dominate much of Iran, a development that culminated in 945 with the capture of Baghdad and domination of the caliph himself. [137] The Buyid dynasty claimed descent from the Sasanian king Bahram V (420–438), [146] almost certainly a forgery. [148]

Individual Buyid rulers were styled as amir . The senior of the three was also invested by the caliph with the grander title amīr al-­omarāʾ ("great emir"). [148] The Buyid emirates were transformed into something akin to a restored Iranian monarchy under Rukn al-Dawla and his son 'Adud al-Dawla, who also reintroduced the Sasanian royal title šāhānšāh ('King of Kings'). [149] This title continued to be sporadically claimed by Buyid dynasts. [ad]

This list records only the 'main branch' of Buyid rulers, per Daryaee (2012). [145] For a full list of major and minor Buyid rulers, see Buyid dynasty § Buyid rulers.

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Imad al-Dawla coin.jpg Imad al-Dawla
(Ali)		933/934–949/950 [154]
(16 years, Fars [145] )		Son of a Daylamite chief. [145] Seized power in the southern territories of the Ziyarid state. [148]
Mu'izz al-Dawla coin.jpg Mu'izz al-Dawla
(Ahmad)		935/936–949/950 [155]
(14 years, Kerman [154] then Iraq [145] )		Brother (and coregent) of Imad al-Dawla [145]
Rukn al-Dawla (cropped).jpg Rukn al-Dawla
(Hasan)		946/947 – 16 September 976 [156]
(29–30 years, Ray [145] )		Brother (and coregent) of Imad al-Dawla [145]
Adud al-Dawla.jpg 'Adud al-Dawla
(Panāh Khusraw)		949/950 – 26 March 983 [154]
(33–34 years)		Son of Rukn al-Dawla [145]
Sharaf al-Dawla.jpg Sharaf al-Dawla
(Shirdil)		March/April 983 – September/October 989 [154]
(6 years and 5 or 6 months)		Son of 'Adud al-Dawla [145]
Samsam al-Dawla.jpg Samsam al-Dawla
(Abu Kalijar Marzuban)		989–998 [145]
(9 years)		Son of 'Adud al-Dawla [145]
Baha' al-DawlaBuyidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Baha al-Dawla
(Abu Nasr Firuz)		998–1012 [145]
(14 years)		Son of 'Adud al-Dawla [145]
Sultan al-Dawla coin.jpg Sultan al-Dawla
(Abu Shuja)		1012–1024 [145]
(12 years)		Son of Baha al-Dawla [145]
AbuKalijarBuyidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Abu Kalijar Marzuban 1024–1048 [145]
(24 years)		Son of Sultan al-Dawla [145]
Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun 1048–1062 [145]
(14 years)		Son of Abu Kalijar Marzuban [145]

Samanids (875–999)

The Samanids at their greatest extent Samanid Empire (greatest extent).svg
The Samanids at their greatest extent

The Samanids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by four brothers in 819, when they were granted four improtant cities and regions by the Abbasid Caliphate due to helping against the revolt of Rafi ibn al-Layth. [157] In 875, the Samanids increased dramatically in power through investment as governors of Transoxiana [157] [158] and in 892, all Samanid-held territories were united under a single ruler (Ismail). Under Ismail, the Samanids became autonomous of the Abbasids. [157] The Samanids claimed descent from Bahram VI Chobin (589–590). [146]

Like other dynasties of their time, Samanid rulers used the title amir. [159] Mansur I (961/962–976/977) assumed the style šāhānšāh ('King of Kings') as a response to the use of that title by the Buyids. [160] Mansur I's son, Nuh II (976/977–997), also used šāhānšāh. [161] The Samanid capital was at Samarkand (875–892) and then at Bukhara. [157]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Nasr I 875 [162] – August/September 892 [158]
(17 years)		Appointed governor of Transoxiana by the Abbasid Caliphate in 875 [158]
Coinage of Isma'il I ibn Ahmad (AH 279-295 AD 892-907) Usrushana mint. Dated AH 280 (AD 893-4).jpg Ismail August/September 892 – 24 November 907 [158]
(15 years and 2–3 months)		Brother of Nasr I [158]
Ruler Ahmad Samani from the genealogy (silsilanama), Cream of Histories (Zubdet-ut Tevarih, 1598).jpg Ahmad
the Martyred Amir		November/December 907 – 24 January 914 [158]
(6 years and 2–3 months)		Son of Ismail [158]
NasrIISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Nasr II
the Fortunate		January 914 – March/April 943 [158]
(29 years and 2–3 months)		Son of Ahmad [158]
NuhISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Nuh I April/May 943 – 954/955 [158]
(11–12 years)		Son of Nasr II [162]
Gold coin of the Samanid ruler Abd al-Malik I, minted at Nishapur in 955 or 956.jpg Abd al-Malik I 954/955–961/962 [158]
(8 years)		Son of Nuh I [158]
Mansur I.jpg Mansur I
the Righteous Amir		961/962–976/977 [158]
(15 years)		Son of Nuh I [162]
NuhIISamanidCoinHistoryofIran.jpg Nuh II 976/977 – 22 July 997 [158]
(10–11 years)		Son of Mansur I [158]
Ghaznavid coin citing the Samanid ruler Mansur II as overlord.jpg Mansur II July/August 997 – 1 February 999 [158]
(1 year and 6–7 months)		Son of Nuh II [158]
Abd al-Malik II February 999 [158] – 999 [162]
(less than a year)		Son of Nuh II [158]
Later pretenders (999–1005)
PortraitNameTenureSuccession
Ismail II
Muntasir ("the Victorious")		999 [162] –1005 [157]
(6 years)		Son of Nuh II. [162] Fought against the Kara-Khanid Khanate, which conquered Bukhara, for several years in an effort to restore the Samanids. [157]

Ghaznavids (977–1040)

The Ghaznavids at their greatest extent Ghaznavids (greatest extent).svg
The Ghaznavids at their greatest extent

The Ghaznavids were of Turkish [146] [163] slave origin. [163] In the tenth century, Turkish slave commanders became increasingly prominent, and eventually effectively autonomous, in the southern parts of the Samanid realm. In 977, the commander Sabuktigin seized power in Ghazni, nominally as a Samanid vassal. Once the Samanids went into terminal decline and collapsed in the late tenth century, Sabuktigin's state became a fully independent realm. [163] Although not Iranian, the Ghaznavid rulers nevertheless claimed descent from the Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III (c. 633–651). [146]

Sabuktigin ruled with the title al-ḥājeb al-ajall ("most noble commander"). [163] From 999 onwards, [162] the Ghaznavids ruled with the title sulṭān . [163] Sabuktigin's capital, Ghazni, remained the Ghaznavid capital for the duration of their rule in Iran. [163]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Coin of the Ghaznavid amir Sabuktigin, citing the Samanid amir Nuh II as his overlord. Date unknown, minted at Ghazna.jpg Sabuktigin 977/978–997/998 [164]
(20 years)		Seized power in Ghazni [163]
Ismail 997/998–998 [164]
(less than a year)		Son of Sabuktigin [162]
Mahmud of Ghazni bilingual dirham.jpg Mahmud 998 – 30 April 1030 [164]
(32 years)		Son of Sabuktigin [162]
MohammadGhaznavidCoin.jpg Muhammad 1030 [164]
(briefly)		Son of Mahmud [164]
Mas'udIGhaznavidCoin.jpg Masʽud 1030 – 23 May 1040 [164]
(10 years)		Son of Mahmud [164]

The Ghaznavids lost their territories in Iran to the Seljuks after the Battle of Dandanaqan (1040). [163] [164] For later Ghaznavid rulers, see Ghaznavids § List of rulers.

Turco-Mongol rule (1038–1508)

Seljuk Empire (1038–1194)

The Seljuk Empire under Malik-Shah I Seljuk Empire (greatest extent).svg
The Seljuk Empire under Malik-Shah I

The Seljuk Empire was established by the Turkoman chieftain Tughril I, who invaded the Ghaznavids in the late 1030s. [165] In 1040, the Seljuks conquered the Ghaznavid-held parts of Iran [163] [164] and over the following decades they established control over most of the Middle East, [166] ending the Iranian Intermezzo. [138] Though they were not of Iranian origin, the Seljuk rulers bolstered their legitimacy by claiming descent from Afrasiab, a legendary figure from the Shahnameh . [146]

From the empire's inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the title šāhānšāh ('King of Kings') in its Persian form, [166] perhaps adopting it from the Buyids. [153] Later on, the rulers more prominently used the Arabic title sulṭān and royal styles such as the Arabic malik and Persian šāh were bestowed on vassals. [166] Šāhānšāh continued to be used on the majority of Seljuk coinage, sometimes in the new variant "šāhānšāh king of Islam". [167] Nishapur served as the first capital of the Seljuk Empire. In 1143, the capital was moved to Ray and a few years later it was moved again to Isfahan. From 1118 onwards, the Seljuk regime became increasingle unstable and rival claimants used various bases of power, including Baghdad, Hamadan, and Merv. [168]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Tugrul bey.jpg Tughril I June/July 1138 [169] – 4 September 1063 [170]
(25 years and 2–3 months)		Initiated the Seljuk conquest of Iran [169]
Alp Arslan on throne Majma al-Tawarikh by Hafiz Abru (cropped).png Alp Arslan 4 September 1063 – 15 December 1072 [170]
(9 years, 3 months and 11 days)		Nephew of Tughril I [171]
Malik-Shah I (portrait).jpg Malik-Shah I 15 December 1072 [170] – 14 October 1092 [172]
(19 years, 9 months and 29 days)		Son of Alp Arslan [171]
Gold dinar of the Seljuk sultan Mahmud I, minted at Isfahan in 1093 or 1094.jpg Mahmud I 14 October 1092 [172] – 1093 [171]
(c. 1 year)		Son of Malik-Shah I [171]
BarkiyaruqPainting (cropped).jpg Berkyaruq October/November 1092 [173] – 22 December 1104 [174]
(12 years and 1–2 months)		Son of Malik-Shah I [171]
Malik-Shah II 22 December 1104 – February/March 1105 [174]
(2–3 months)		Son of Berkyaruq [174]
Muhammad I Tapar (cropped).png Muhammad I Tapar February/March 1105 [174] – 5 August 1118 [170]
(13 years and 5–6 months)		Son of Malik-Shah I [171]
Coin struck under Mughith al-Din Mahmud II, citing governor Inanch Yabghu.jpg Mahmud II 5 August 1118 [170] – 11 September 1131 [175]
(13 years, 1 month and 6 days)		Son of Muhammad I Tapar. [176] Defeated by his uncle Ahmad Sanjar after eight months of rule, thereafter sultan only in Iraq. [177]
Ahmad Sanjar (cropped).jpg Ahmad Sanjar 1118 [178] – 8 May 1157 [175]
(39 years)		Son of Malik-Shah I. [171] Previously Seljuk ruler in Khorasan. [179]
Dawud December 1132/January 1133 [180]
(briefly)		Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq [178]
Tughril II December 1132/January 1133 – October/November 1134 [181]
(1 year and 10 months)		Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq [178]
Mas'ud October/November 1134 [181] – 10 October 1152 [181]
(18 years)		Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq [178]
Malik-Shah III October 1152 – December 1152/January 1153 [181]
(2–3 months)		Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq [178]
Muhammad II December 1152/January 1153 [182] – December 1159/January 1160 [183]
(7 years)		Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq [178]
Suleiman-Shah 22 March [184] – September/October 1160 [185]
(6–7 months)		Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq [178]
Arslan-Shah September/October 1160 [185] – January/February 1176 [186]
(15 years and 4 months)		Son of Tughril II; sultan in Iraq [178]
Tughril III.jpg Tughril III January/February 1176 [186] – 1194 [187]
(18 years)		Son of Arslan-Shah; sultan in Iraq [178]

Khwarazmian Empire (1097–1220)

The Khwarazmian Empire under Muhammad II Khwarazmian dynasty (greatest extent).svg
The Khwarazmian Empire under Muhammad II

The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death of Ahmad Sanjar in 1157 and its vassals became effectively independent. [188] One of these vassals was the Anushtegin dynasty, which ruled the Khwarazm region. The ruling dynasty were descendants of Anushtegin Gharchai, a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans. [189] In 1194, the Khwarazmian ruler Tekish conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire. [187]

The Khwarazmian rulers used the ancient title xwârazmšāh, traditionally held by Iranian rulers of Khwarazm. [190] Urganj was the Khwarazmian capital. [190]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Muhammad I 1096/1097 – 1127/1128 [187]
(31 years)		Seljuk vassal in Khwarazm [187]
Coin of the Khwarazmshah Atsiz, citing his suzerain Ahmad Sanjar.jpg Atsiz 1127/1128 – 30 July 1156 [187]
(28–29 years)		Son of Muhammad I. Seljuk vassal. [187]
Il-Arslan (portrait).jpg Il-Arslan 22 August 1156 – March 1172 [187]
(15 years and 7 months)		Son of Atsiz [187]
Sultan Shah 1172 – 11 December 1172 [187]
(less than a year)		Son of Il-Arslan. [187] Deposed by Tekish, who he continued to oppose as a rival claimant until 1193. [187]
Tekish 11 December 1172 – 3 July 1200 [187]
(27 years, 6 months and 22 days)		Son of Il-Arslan. [187] Conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire in 1194. [187]
Muhammad II portrait in a 1430 manuscript of the Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani.jpg Muhammad II 3 August 1200 – 1220/1221 [187]
(20–21 years)		Son of Tekish [187]
Later pretenders (1220–1231)
PortraitNameTenureSuccession
Khwarizm Shahs. Jalal al-Din Mangubarni. AH 617-628 AD 1220-1231. AR Double Dirhem (20mm, 5.90 g, 1h). Qal 'a Nay mint.jpg Mangburni 1220/1221 – August 1231 [187]
(10–11 years)		Son of Muhammad II. [187] Fled to India for three years (1221–1224) after the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire and was then involved in various wars in western Iran. [190]

Mongol Empire (1220–1259)

The Mongol Empire's nominal size under Kublai Khan (1279) Mongol Empire (greatest extent).svg
The Mongol Empire's nominal size under Kublai Khan (1279)

The Mongol Empire was established by Genghis Khan in 1206 through uniting the Mongol clans. [191] The unification of the clans was followed by aggressive imperial expansion throughout Asia and parts of Europe. [191] In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols under reached Iran. The region around Bukhara was conquered in 1220 [192] and the Khwarazmian Empire was destroyed. [190] Over the following decades, further conquests followed in the Middle East, culminating in the fall of Baghdad and end of the Abbasid Caliphate's rule there in 1258. [193]

The rulers of the Mongol Empire used the ruling title khagan ('Great Khan' or 'emperor'). [194] In the 1230s, the Mongol Empire established its capital at Karakorum in Mongolia. [195]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg Genghis Khan 1220 [192] – 25 August 1227 [196]
(7 years)		Founder of the Mongol Empire. [197] Conquered the region around Bukhara in 1220, initiating Mongol rule in Iran. [192]
YuanEmperorAlbumOgedeiPortrait.jpg Ögedei Khan 13 September 1229 [196] – 11 December 1241 [198]
(12 years, 2 months and 28 days)		Son of Genghis [193]
Guyuk khan from Persian miniature.jpg Güyük Khan 24 August 1246 – April 1248 [199]
(1 year and 8 months)		Son of Ögedei [200]
Audience de Mongke.jpeg Möngke Khan 2 May 1252 [201] – 11 August 1259 [202]
(7 years, 3 months and 9 days)		Grandson of Genghis [203]

Ilkhanate (1256–1335)

The Ilkhanate under Ghazan Khan Ilkhanate (greatest extent).svg
The Ilkhanate under Ghazan Khan

After the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East. Kublai Khan (1260–1294) was eventually universally recognized but the empire was irreversibly fragmented. [193] In much of the south-west of the empire (including Iran), power fell to Hulegu Khan, [204] who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan. [193] Hulegu was swiftly accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was further legitimized through a fatwa issued by the Shiite scholar Ali ibn Tawus al-Hilli. [205] Iran experienced a cultural renaissance under Ilkhanid rule. [205] Ghazan Khan (1295–1304) converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms. [204]

The rulers of the Ilkhanate adopted the style ilkhan ("subordinate khan") to show deference to the Great Khan in China and Mongolia. [204] From the time of Ghazan Khan onwards, they also used the title pādishāh-i Īrān ("emperor of Iran"), sometimes extended to pādishāh-i Īrān wa Islām ("emperor of Iran and Islam"). [206] The version pādishāh-i Islām ("emperor of Islam") is also recorded. [207] The Ilkhanate went through a succession of capitals, beginning with Maragheh (1256–1265), Tabriz (1265–1306), and Soltaniyeh (1306–1335). [208] After the empire disintegrated in the 1330s, various claimants established different centers of power. The last ilkhan, Luqman, ruled from Astarabad under Timurid suzerainty. [209]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Hulagu Khan.jpg Hulegu Khan 1256 [170] – 8 February 1265 [210]
(9 years)		Grandson of Genghis Khan. [171] Granted power in Iran under Möngke Khan. [193]
Abaqa Khan.jpg Abaqa Khan 8 February 1265 [210] – 1 April 1282 [211] [212]
(17 years, 1 month and 24 days)		Son of Hulegu [171]
Teguder portrait.jpg Ahmad Tekuder 1 April 1282 [211] – 10 August 1284 [213]
(2 years, 4 months and 9 days)		Son of Hulegu [171]
ArghunEnthroned (cropped).png Arghun Khan 11 August 1284 – 10 March 1291 [213]
(6 years, 6 months and 27 days)		Son of Abaqa [171]
skhh gykhtw.jpg Gaykhatu 10 March 1291 – 26 March 1295 [211]
(4 years and 16 days)		Son of Abaqa [171]
Gold Mithqal of Baydu, Madinat Tabriz, 694 H (1295).jpg Baydu 26 March – summer? 1295 [211]
(a few months)		Grandson of Hulegu [171]
GhazanConversionToIslam (cropped).JPG Ghazan Khan Summer? 1295 – 11 May 1304 [211]
(9 years)		Son of Arghun [171]
Majma' al-Tavarikh 001 (cropped) (cropped).jpg Öljaitü 11 May 1304 – 16 December 1316 [211]
(12 years, 7 months and 5 days)		Son of Arghun [211]
In the Court of Abu Sa'id, folio from a manuscript of Nigaristan, Iran, probably Shiraz, dated 1573-74 (Abu Sa'id detail).jpg Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan 16 December 1316 [211] – 30 November 1335 [213]
(18 years, 11 months and 14 days)		Son of Öljaitü [171]
Ilkhan Musa Khan Dirham.jpg Musa Khan 1335/1336–1336 [213]
(less than a year)		Grandson of Baydu [213]
skhh arpkhn.jpg Arpa Khan 1335–1336 [214]
(1 year)		Descendant of Tolui, the father of Hulegu [171]
Ilkhanids, Muhammad Khan (1337-1338) Dinar, Al-Jazira mint, Dated AH 737 (1336-1337).jpg Muhammad Khan 1336–1338 [214]
(2 years)		Great-great-great-grandson of Hulegu [214]
Gold Dinar of Taghaytimur, Kashan, 739 H, 1338-1339.jpg Togha Temür 1337–1353
(6 years)		Descendant of Qasar, a brother of Genghis Khan [214]
Jahan Temür 1338/1339–1340/1341 [213]
(2 years)		Grandson of Gaykhatu [213]
Sati Beg 1338/1339–1339/1340 [213]
(1 year)		Daughter of Öljaitü. [213] Fourth and last of only four women to rule in Iranian history. [ae]
Suleiman Khan 1339/1340 – 1343/1344 [213]
(4 years)		Great-great-grandson of Hulegu [214]
Silver Dirham of Anushirwan, Tiflis, 1344-1353.jpg Anushirwan Khan 1344–1356 [214]
(12 years)		Unknown lineage [214]
Ghazan II 1356–1357 [214]
(1 year)		Son of Togha Temür [214]
Luqman 1356 [215] –1388 [216]
(32 years)		Son of Togha Temür. [214] Puppet ruler under various warlords, including Amir Vali [215] and later Timur. [209]

Timurid Empire (1370–1507)

The Timurid Empire under Timur Timurid Empire (greatest extent).svg
The Timurid Empire under Timur

The Timurid Empire was established by Timur, a conqueror who claimed both Turkic and Mongol descent. Timur began as a minor brigand chief under the Chagatai Khanate. [217] In the middle 1360s, Timur rose to become the effective ruler of Transoxiana. He went on to establish his seat of power in Khorasan and conquered most of Iran through campaigns in the 1380s and 1390s. [217]

During his conquests, Timur made some effort to portray himself as the heir of the Ilkhanate, adopting the Ilkhanid title pādishāh-i Islām ("emperor of Islam"). [207] Timur also used the style guregen ("son-in-law") to stress his marriage to Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan. [218] Pādishāh continued to be used by Timur's successors, who at times also adopted the style of sulṭān. [218] Samarkand was the capital of the Timurid Empire. [219]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Timur reconstruction03.png Timur 9 April 1370 – 18 February 1405 [219]
(34 years, 10 months and 9 days)		Conquered Iran in the 1370s–1390s. [217]
Pir Muhammad February 1405 – 1407 [217]
(2 years)		Grandson of Timur [217] and his designated heir. [207] Ruler in Fars. [217]
Contemporary drawing of Khalil Sultan, 1405-1406 (Ms. Diez A. fol.74, p.24) contoured.jpg Khalil Sultan February 1405 [217] – 1409/1410 [219]
(4–5 years)		Grandson of Timur. [219] Senior Timurid ruler and ruler of Persia. [217]
Contemporary portrait of Shah Rukh, painted in his lifetime in 1435-36, by commission of his son Ibrahim Sultan.jpg Shah Rukh February 1405 [217] – 1446/1447 [219]
(41–42 years)		Son of Timur. Initially only ruler in Khorasan; ruler of the entire empire from 1415/1416 onwards. [219]
Ulugh Beg, Timurid painting 1425-50.jpg Ulugh Beg 1446/1447 – October/November 1449 [219]
(2–3 years)		Son of Shah Rukh [219]
Abdal-Latif Mirza October/November 1449 – May 1450 [219]
(6–7 months)		Son of Ulugh Beg [219]
Abdullah Mirza May 1450 – 1451/1452 [219]
(1–2 years)		Grandson of Shah Rukh [219]
Abu Said seated on a throne.png Abu Sa'id Mirza 1451/1452 [219] –1458 [220]
(6–7 years)		Great-grandson of Timur [219]

The Timurids lost almost all of their territories in Iran to the Qara Qoyunlu in 1452–1458. [220] For later Timurid rulers in Khorasan and elsewhere, see Timurid Empire § Emperors (Emir).

Qara Qoyunlu (1452–1469)

The Qara Qoyunlu under Jahan Shah Qara Qoyunlu (greatest extent).svg
The Qara Qoyunlu under Jahan Shah

The Qara Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic Turkmen confederation that grew in power west of Iran following the collapse of the Ilkhanate. The origins of the Qara Qoyunlu are obscure and they are first recorded as an identifiable group in the 1330s. [221] Under the leader Jahan Shah, the Qara Qoyunlu seized most of Iran from the Timurids. This began with the conquest of Jibal in 1452, and continued with further conquests of Isfahan, Fars, and Kerman in 1458. [220]

The Qara Qoyunlu rulers presented themselves as rulers of Iran and political successors of the Ilkhanate, using titles such as pādishāh-i Īrān ("emperor of Iran") and kesra-yi Īrān ("Caesar of Iran"). [222] Tabriz served as the Qara Qoyunlu capital 1436–1467. [223]

This list only includes the Qara Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran. [224] For a full list, see the list of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu.

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Portrait of Jahan Shah Qara Qoyunlu.jpg Jahan Shah 1452–1467 [224]
(15 years)		Conquered much of Iran from the Timurid Empire in 1452–1458 [220]
Hasan Ali bin Cahan shah.jpg Hasan Ali 1467–1469 [224]
(2 years)		Son of Jahan Shah [225]

Aq Qoyunlu (1465–1508)

The Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan Ag Qoyunlu (greatest extent).svg
The Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan

Like the Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic Turkmen confederation that rose to power after the Ilkhanate's collapse. The Aq Qoyunlu was a more long-lived and better recorded group. [221] In the 1450s and 1460s, the Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan defeated both the Qara Qoyunlu and Timurid forces and by 1469, Uzun Hasan ruled all of Iraq and Iran. [226]

Like the preceding Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu rulers titled themselves as pādishāh-i Īrān ("emperor of Iran") and kesra-yi Īrān ("Caesar of Iran"), among other titles. [222] Amida was the original Aq Qoyunlu capital. [227] The capital was transferred to Tabriz under Uzun Hasan. [226]

This list only includes the Aq Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran. [224] For a full list, see the list of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu.

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Coin of Uzun Hasan, minted in Amed (Amid, Diyarbakir). Obverse.jpg Uzun Hasan 1465/1469–1478 [224]
(9–13 years)		Conquered Iran in the 1460s [226]
Sultan Khalil of the Aq Qoyunlu 1478 (cropped).jpg Sultan-Khalil 1478 [224]
(less than a year)		Son of Uzun Hasan [228]
Soltan Ya'qub Aq Qoyunlu and his weeping courtiers. Source- The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, MS Ouseley Add. 24, fol. 177r (cropped).jpg Yaqub 1478–1490 [224]
(12 years)		Son of Uzun Hasan [228]
Gold coin of the Aq Qoyunlu ruler Baysunghur, Tabriz mint.jpg Baysunghur 1490–1492 [224]
(2 years)		Son of Yaqub [228]
Coin of Sultan Rustam (Aq Qoyunlu).png Rustam Beg 1492–1496 [224]
(4 years)		Grandson of Uzun Hasan [228]
Coin of Sultan Ahmad (Aq Qoyunlu).jpg Ahmad Beg 1496–1497 [224]
(1 year)		Grandson of Uzun Hasan [228]
Coin of Sultan Alvand (Aq Qoyunlu).jpg Alvand Beg 1497–1502 [228]
(5 years, in Diyar Bakr and then Azerbaijan)		Grandson of Uzun Hasan [228]
Muhammad Beg 1499–1500 [224]
(1 year, in Iraq and southern Persia)		Grandson of Uzun Hasan [228]
The envoy Qanbar Aqa, sent by Shah Ismail I, before Sultan Murad Turkman. Mu'in Musavvir, Isfahan, circa 1670 (cropped).jpg Sultan Murad 1500–1508 [228]
(8 years, in Fars and Kerman)		Son of Yaqub [228]
Zayn al-Abidin 1504–1508 [228]
(4 years, in Diyar Bakr)		Great-grandson of Uzun Hasan [228]

Minor kingdoms and dynasties

Modern Iran (1501–1979)

Safavid Iran (1501–1722)

Safavid Iran under Abbas the Great Safavid dynasty (greatest extent).svg
Safavid Iran under Abbas the Great

The Safavid dynasty originated as the leaders of the medieval mystic Safavid order. In 1499, the Safavid sheikh Ismail defeated the Shirvanshahs of Azerbaijan and began to wrest control of Iran from the Aq Qoyunlu. The power of the Aq Qoyunlu was decisively broken in 1501 with the defeat of Alvand Beg. [229] In 1502, Ismail crowned himself šâhanšâh at Tabriz. [230] The rise of the Safavids is often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history, with their state being the earliest stage of the modern Iranian nation state. [229] Through further conquests, the Safavids restored Iran as a single Iranian political unit and retransformed the tribal nomadic order of the land, established during its period under Turko-Mongol rule, into a sedentary society. Shia Islam was for the first time established as the state religion. [229]

The Safavids ruled as šâhanšâh-e Irân ('King of Kings of Iran'). [231] The initial capital of the Safavid Empire was at Tabriz. Due to conflict with the Ottoman Empire in the west, the capital was moved eastwards to Qazvin in 1548, and then to Isfahan in the 1590s. [229]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Portrait of Shah Ismail I. Inscribed "Ismael Sophy Rex Pers". Painted by Cristofano dell'Altissimo, dated 1552-1568.jpg Ismail I 11 May 1502 – 22/23 May 1524 [232]
(22 years and 11 days)		Conquered and reunified Iran [229]
Portrait of Shah Tahmasp I. Inscribed "Tammas Pers". Painted by Cristofano dell'Altissimo, dated 1552-1568.jpg Tahmasp I 22/23 May 1524 – 22 August 1576 [232]
(52 years and 3 months)		Son of Ismail I [232]
Shah Ismayil I.jpg Ismail II 22 August 1576 – 11 February 1578 [232]
(1 year, 5 months and 20 days)		Son of Tahmasp I [232]
Illustration of the Safavid shah Mohammad Khodabandeh.jpg Mohammad Khodabanda 11 February 1578 – 2 December 1587 [232]
(9 years, 9 months and 21 days)		Son of Tahmasp I [232]
ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg Abbas I
the Great		2 December 1587 – 21 January 1629 [232]
(41 years, 1 month and 19 days)		Son of Mohammad Khodabanda [232]
Shah Safi I of Persia on Horseback Carrying a Mace- Sahand Ace.png Safi I 21 January 1629 – 12 May 1642 [232]
(13 years, 3 months and 21 days)		Grandson of Abbas I [232]
Abbas II of Persia.jpg Abbas II 12 May 1642 – 27 September 1667 [232]
(25 years, 4 months and 15 days)		Son of Safi I [232]
Portrait of a ruler of Persia, painted by a follower of Ali Quli Jabbadar, Safavid Iran.jpg Safi II [af] (1667–1668)
Suleiman I (1668–1694)		3 October 1667 – 30 January 1694 [232]
(26 years, 3 months and 27 days)		Son of Abbas II [232]
Sultan Husayn of Persia.jpg Soltan Hoseyn I 28 April 1694 – 22 October 1722 [232]
(28 years, 5 months and 24 days)		Son of Suleiman I [232]

Intermediate period (1722–1796)

Complex rivalries in the region of Khorasan led to the Afghan Hotak dynasty invading Iran. In 1722, this conflict led to the collapse of the Safavid Empire after the siege of Isfahan. [229] [233] The brief interlude between 1722 and the rise of the Qajar dynasty in 1789–1796 was marked by widespread political turmoil in Iran and several rival attempts to establish power over the country. The Safavids failed to regain power and the Hotaks failed to establish control. The rival Afsharid and Zand dynasties were established by Nader Shah (1736–1747) and Karim Khan (1751–1779), respectively. Although both of these founding figures established their rule over large parts of the former Safavid domain, the political influence of their dynasties swiftly collapsed under their successors. [233]

Hotaks (1722–1729)

The Hotak dynasty under Mahmud Hotak Hotak dynasty (greatest extent).svg
The Hotak dynasty under Mahmud Hotak

In 1701, unrest among the Ghilji Pashtun tribe of Afghanistan led to a rebellion against the Safavids. This uprising was suppressed by the local commander, George XI of Kartli, but the Afghan anti-Safavid movement continued under Mirwais Hotak and his son, Mahmud Hotak. Mahmud initially feigned loyalty and was officially appointed as governor of Kandahar. In 1720, he began raiding the Kerman area and in March 1722, a hastily assembled Safavid army was defeated at the Battle of Gulnabad. Following a six-month siege of Isfahan, Soltan Hoseyn I formally submitted to Mahmud and recognized him as the new shah of Iran. [229] The Hotak rulers of Iran ruled from the former Safavid capital of Isfahan. [234]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
SHAH-MAHMUD-HOTAK.jpg Mahmud Hotak 22 October 1722 – April/May 1725 [232]
(2 years and 5 or 6 months)		Invaded and seized power from Soltan Hoseyn I [234]
Ashraf Shah Hotaki 1725-1729.jpg Ashraf Hotak April/May 1725 – 1729 [232]
(4 years)		Cousin of Mahmud Hotak; murdered and overthrew Mahmud [234]

Safavid dynasts (1722–1773)

When news of the fall of Isfahan reached Soltan Hoseyn I's son Tahmasp II at Qazvin, Tahmasp proclaimed himself shah. [229] Pro-Safavid forces successfully defeated Ashraf Hotak in 1729 and forced to Afghan forces out of Iran. [234] Tahmasp failed to assert his authority in the aftermath of the Hotak invasion and the effective ruler of Iran was instead the general Nader Khan. In 1732, Nader deposed Tahmasp and replaced him with the eight-month old Abbas III. Abbas was in turn deposed in 1736 and Nader Khan was proclaimed the new shah of Iran under the name Nader Shah, terminating the Safavid dynasty. [235] Safavid descendants continued to emerge for some time after 1736 as pretenders or as figurehead rulers put forward by warlords vying for power in Iran. [236]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Coin of Tahmasp II, minted in Ganja (obverse).jpg Tahmasp II 31 October 1722 [232] – August 1732 [235]
(9 years and 9 or 10 months)		Son of Soltan Hoseyn I [232]
Abbas III.jpg Abbas III 7 September 1732 – 8 March 1736 [235]
(3 years, 6 months and 1 day)		Son of Tahmasp II [232]
No recognized Safavid ruler 1736–1750
Suleiman II of Iran.jpg Suleiman II 13 January – March 1750 [237]
(2 months)		Grandson of Suleiman I. [238] Proclaimed shah at Mashhad after the deposition of Shahrokh Shah (Afsharid) and ruled until Shahrokh was restored. [237]
Coin minted in the name of Ismail III in Mazandaran.jpg Ismail III Summer 1750 – 1773 [236]
(23 years)		Grandson of Soltan Hoseyn I. Proclaimed shah at Isfahan by Karim Khan Zand in 1750, as a puppet ruler. [236]
Soltan Hoseyn II 1752 [232] /1753 [239] Son of an Azeri man and an Armenian woman, but claimed to be a son of Tahmasp II. [239] Proclaimed shah at Baghdad by Ali Mardan Khan Bakhtiari, as a puppet ruler. [239]

Afsharids (1736–1796)

Afsharid Iran under Nader Shah Afsharid dynasty (greatest extent).svg
Afsharid Iran under Nader Shah

The Afsharid dynasty was established by Nader Shah, a general under the Safavids who seized control of the empire in 1736 after the deposition of Abbas III. [235] Nader was a powerful conqueror but the Afsharid Empire quickly collapsed after his assassination in 1747. Large territories fell to the rival Zand dynasty as well as the Afghan Durrani Empire. The domain of Nader's heirs became largely confined to the Iranian parts of Khorasan. For most of its later history, the Afsharid state was dominated by military leaders or other court factions. [237] The Afsharids ruled with the style of šâhanšâh [240] and their capital was at Mashhad. [237]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
NaderShahPainting.png Nader Shah 8 March 1736 – 20 June 1747 [232]
(11 years, 3 months and 12 days)		General; deposed Abbas III [235]
Portrait of Adel Shah.jpg Adel Shah 6 July 1747 [237] – 24 September 1748 [232]
(1 year, 1 month and 18 days)		Nephew of Nader Shah; proclaimed ruler after Nader's assassination [237]
Coin of Shahrokh Afshar, struck at the Ganja mint (obverse).jpg Shahrokh Shah 1 October 1748 [232] – 13 January 1750 [237]
(1st reign)
(1 year, 3 months and 12 days)		Grandson of Nader Shah and matrilineal grandson of Soltan Hoseyn I (Safavid). Proclaimed ruler by tribal leaders at Mashhad in opposition to Adel. [237]
Coin of Ebrahim Shah Afshar, struck at the Tiflis mint (obverse).jpg Ebrahim Shah 8 December 1748 – December 1749 [232]
(~1 year)		Brother of Adel Shah; proclaimed ruler (in opposition to Shahrokh Shah) after deposing and blinding Adel [237]
Shahrokh Shah was removed from the throne in January–March 1750 in favor of the Safavid ruler Suleiman II [237]
Coin of Shahrokh Afshar, struck at the Ganja mint (obverse).jpg Shahrokh Shah March 1750 [237] – 1796 [232] (2nd reign)
(46 years)		Restored to the throne [237]

Zands (1751–1794)

Land held by the Zand dynasty under Lotf Ali Khan Zand dynasty.svg
Land held by the Zand dynasty under Lotf Ali Khan

In the aftermath of Nader Shah's assassination, the Zand family grew to become the most powerful rivals of the Afsharids and seized control of much of Iran in the 1750s. [241] Established by the tribal leader Karim Khan Zand, the Zand rulers never proclaimed themselves to be shahs. [241] [242] Instead, they presented themselves as regents of Iran, at first on behalf of the Safavid puppet Ismail III (1750–1773) and then on behalf of the Iranian people. [241] [242] Karim Khan Zand ruled with the title of khân, as well as the style of wakil (regent) or wakil-al-raʿāyāʾ ("regent of the people"). [242] His successors ruled simply as khân, though were often considered to be "kings" by European observers. [242] The Zand dynasty ruled from Shiraz. [242]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Karim Khan by Charles Heath.jpg Karim Khan 1751 – 1 March 1779 [243]
(28 years)		Seized power over much of Iran [241]
Mohammad-Ali Khan 2 March – 19 June 1779 [244]
(3 months and 17 days)		Son of Karim Khan. [242] Joint co-ruler with his brother Abol-Fath Khan. [244]
Abol-Fath Khan 2 March – 22 August 1779 [244]
(5 months and 20 days)		Son of Karim Khan. [242] Initially joint co-ruler with his brother Mohammad-Ali Khan. [244]
Image of sadiq khan zand.png Sadeq Khan 22 August 1779 – 14 March 1781 [245]
(1 year, 6 months and 20 days)		Brother of Karim Khan [242]
Ali Murad Khan Zand.png Ali-Morad Khan 14 March 1781 – 10 January 1785 [245]
(3 years, 9 months and 27 days)		Member of the 'Hazāra' branch of the Zand family [242]
Ja`far Khan.png Jafar Khan 17 January 1785 – 23 January 1789 [245]
(4 years and 6 days)		Son of Sadeq Khan [242]
Sayed Murad Zand.png Sayed Morad Khan 23 January – 7 May 1789 [245]
(3 months and 14 days)		Cousin of Ali-Morad Khan. Mutinied against Jafar Khan (leading to Jafar's death) and opposed the accession of Jafar's son, Lotf Ali Khan. [242]
Lotf Ali Khan Zand.jpg Lotf Ali Khan 7 May 1789 [245] – November 1794 [242]
(5 years and 5 or 6 months)		Son of Jafar Khan. [245]

Qajar Iran (1789–1925)

Qajar Iran under Agha Mohammad Shah Qajar dynasty (greatest extent).svg
Qajar Iran under Agha Mohammad Shah

The Qajar dynasty originated as a local Turkoman [246] noble family in northern Iran, under the Safavids. [241] The Qajars gradually increased in power as other families fought each other in Iran, culminating in Agha Mohammad Shah proclaiming himself ruler in 1789, in opposition to the Afsharids and Zands. [246] Agha Mohammad defeated the Zand dynasty in 1794 [241] and was officially crowned in 1796. [246] Shortly thereafter, he captured and deposed the Afsharid Shahrokh Shah, reunifying Iran under a single ruler. [246]

Agha Mohammad Shah ruled with the title khân and later šâh, never assuming the more grandiose šâhanšâh. [247] Agha Mohammad's successor, Fath-Ali Shah, assumed both šâhanšâh and the Mongol khagan, [247] titles frequently used by later Qajar rulers. [248] Many other honorifics of imperial and religious significance were also used by the Qajar rulers. [247] The Qajar dynasty ruled from Tehran, inaugurated as Iran's capital in the 1780s under Agha Mohammad Shah. [249]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Agha mohamad khan qajar (cropped).JPG Agha Mohammad Shah 1789 [246] – 17 June 1797 [250]
(8 years)		Seized power and reunified Iran 1789–1796 [246]
Fath 'Ali Shah Qajar (reg. 1798-1834), Persia, second half of the 19th Century.jpg Fath-Ali Shah 17 June 1797 – 23 October 1834 [250]
(37 years, 4 months and 6 days)		Nephew of Agha Mohammad Shah [251]
Mohammad Shah.jpg Mohammad Shah 23 October 1834 – 5 September 1848 [250]
(13 years, 10 months and 13 days)		Grandson of Fath-Ali Shah [251]
Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, close up, with slight smile by Nadar.png Naser al-Din Shah 5 September 1848 – 1 May 1896 [250]
(47 years, 7 months and 26 days)		Son of Mohammad Shah [251]
Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar portrait.jpg Mozaffar ad-Din Shah 1 May 1896 – 3 January 1907 [250]
(10 years, 8 months and 2 days)		Son of Naser al-Din Shah [251]
Mohammad Ali Shah.jpg Mohammad Ali Shah 3 January 1907 – 16 July 1909 [250]
(2 years, 6 months and 13 days)		Son of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah [251]
AhmadShahQajar2 (cropped).jpg Ahmad Shah 16 July 1909 – 15 December 1925 [250]
(16 years, 4 months and 29 days)		Son of Mohammad Ali Shah [251]
Later pretenders (1925–1943)
PortraitNameTenureSuccession
AhmadShahQajar2 (cropped).jpg Ahmad Shah 15 December 1925 [250] – 27 February 1930 [252]
(4 years, 2 months and 12 days)		Ruler of Iran 1909–1925. Died in exile in France. [253]
Mohammad Hassan Mirza portrait 2.jpg Mohammad Hassan Mirza 27 February 1930 [252] – 7 January 1943 [254]
(11 years, 10 months and 11 days)		Son of Mohammad Ali Shah and designated successor of Ahmad Shah (his brother). [254]
Hamid Mirza.jpg Hamid Mirza No formal claim put forthSon of Mohammad Hassan Mirza. Viewed himself as the rightful heir after his father's death but did not officially claim the throne. [255] Was monitored by the US Department of State in 1943 over whether he would declare himself Shah of Iran. [256]
Fereydoun Mirza.jpg Fereydoun Mirza No formal claim put forthSon of Ahmad Shah. While he lived in Switzerland in 1943, the US Department of State intercepted and suppressed messages from relatives urging Fereydoun to declare himself the rightful Shah of Iran. [256]
There continues to be recognized heads of the Qajar family in exile to the present day, though the family has renounced all claims to rule through lineage and does not endorse political activity under its coat of arms. [257] [ better source needed ]

Pahlavi Iran (1925–1979)

Map of Pahlavi Iran Iran (orthographic projection).svg
Map of Pahlavi Iran

During the late Qajar dynasty, Iran became increasingly embroiled in internal political turmoil over the extent of the monarch's power, among other events leading to the Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911). In 1923, The brigade commander Reza Khan quickly rose through the ranks to become prime minister. [258] In 1925, Reza succeeded in deposing Ahmad Shah and having himself proclaimed by Iran's National Assembly first as regent and then as the new monarch. [259] As his family name, Reza took Pahlavi, after the ancient Iranian script. [259]

The Pahlavi rulers styled themselves as šâhanšâh-e Irân ('King of Kings of Iran'). [259] [260] Tehran remained the capital of Iran under Pahlavi rule. [261]

PortraitNameReignSuccession
Reza shah uniform.jpg Reza Shah 15 December 1925 – 16 September 1941 [262]
(15 years, 9 months and 1 day)		Former prime minister [258]
Shahanshah1333.jpg Mohammad Reza Shah 16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979 [262]
(37 years, 4 months and 26 days)		Son of Reza Shah [259]
Later pretenders (1979–present)
PortraitNameTenureSuccession
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (cropped).png Mohammad Reza Shah 11 February 1979 [262] – 27 July 1980 [263]
(1 year, 5 months and 16 days)		Ruler of Iran 1941–1979. Died in exile in Egypt. [263]
Shahbanu of Iran.jpg Farah Pahlavi 27 July 1980 – 22 October 1980
(3 months)		As regent
Crown Prince of IRAN Reza PAHLAVI EP-146067A AR2 (cropped).jpg Reza Pahlavi
("Reza Shah II" [264] )		22 October 1980 [264] – present
(44 years, 3 months and 6 days)		Son of Mohammad Reza Shah. Proclaimed himself "Reza Shah II", rightful ruler of Iran, in October 1980. [264] Has voiced support for democracy but has not renounced his claim to the throne. [265]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The exonym "Persia" was used by the ancient Greeks to refer to the Achaemenid Empire, derived from the Persians (the Iranian ethnic group to which the Achaemenid dynasty belonged). Historically, "Persia" was subsequently used in the Western world to refer to Iran and Iranians. "Iran" (Īrān, ایران) is the country's endonym, first attested under the Sasanian Empire as Ērān, though earlier forms of the name (see Aryan ) date back to Proto-Indo-Iranian times [1] [2] [3] and had been used ever since. In 1935, the Iranian monarch Reza Shah the Great requested that foreign delegates begin using "Iran" rather than "Persia" in formal correspondence, whereafter "Iran" has also become the common name used internationally. See name of Iran for further details.
  2. ↑ There is no archaeological evidence of any Median imperial centers, no documentary archives from Median administrations, and no contemporary correspondence between foreign kings and Median rulers. [9]
  3. ↑ Ctesias, another ancient Greek historian, also wrote a list of Median rulers though it differs completely from that of Herodotus except for the name of the last king (Astyages). [9]
  4. ↑ In Babylonia, the standard title up until the reign of Xerxes I was 'King of Babylon, King of the Lands'. [21] In more elaborate contexts, the royal style could be augmented with additional titles, such as "the great king" and "king in Persia". [22] The Achaemenid king was referred to as "the great king" by the Greeks and as the "lord of kings" by the Phoenicians. [21]
  5. ↑ Enumerated as Alexander III as king of Macedon (after Alexander I and Alexander II).
  6. ↑ The date of Alexander's victory at the Battle of Gaugamela, which opened the way for his conquest of Babylonia and Persia. [43]
  7. ↑ Enumerated as Philip III as king of Macedon (after Philip I and Philip II).
  8. ↑ Enumerated as Alexander IV as king of Macedon (after Alexander I, Alexander II, and Alexander the Great).
  9. ↑ Alexander IV's murder by his regent Cassander in 309 BC was not made public knowledge until 306/305 BC and he thus continued to be recognized as king posthumously for an additional 3–4 years. [51]
  10. 1 2 The Parthian conquest of Babylonia, whereafter Mithridates I assumed the style 'Great King' and firmly established his empire.
  11. ↑ Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus II since some historians consider the early Arsacid ruler Arsaces II to also be Artabanus I. [68]
  12. ↑ Sometimes enumerated as Mithridates IV, after another supposed Parthian king named Mithridates (based on numismatics) dated by some historians to 87–80 BC. [70]
  13. 1 2 Often enumerated as Tiridates II, after Tiridates I, a supposed Parthian king now believed to be unhistorical. [66]
  14. ↑ The other three were Boran (630), Azarmidokht (630–631), and Sati Beg (1338/1339–1339/1340).
  15. ↑ Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus III, if Artabanus I is considered to be Artabanus II. He is also sometimes referred to as Artabanus IV if another supposed Parthian king named Artabanus (based on numismatics), dated by some historians to 126–122 BC, is accepted. [68]
  16. 1 2 Sometimes enumerated as Pacorus II, after Pacorus I, a Parthian prince who never ruled in his own right.
  17. ↑ Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus IV or Artabanus V (see note on Artabanus II).
  18. ↑ Sometimes enumerated as Vologases III, after another supposed Parthian king named Vologases (based on numismatics) dated by some historians to 77–80. [76]
  19. ↑ Sometimes enumerated as Mithridates V (see note on Mithridates III).
  20. ↑ Sometimes enumerated as Vologases IV (see note on Vologases II).
  21. ↑ Sometimes enumerated as Vologases V (see note on Vologases II).
  22. ↑ Sometimes enumerated as Vologases VI (see note on Vologases II).
  23. ↑ Sometimes enumerated as Artabanus V or Artabanus VI (see note on Artabanus II).
  24. ↑ Khosrow's rule was brief and ephemeral and he is not counted in the numbering of later kings of this name.
  25. ↑ The other three were Musa (2 BC–AD 4), Azarmidokht (630–631), and Sati Beg (1338/1339–1339/1340).
  26. ↑ The other three were Musa (2 BC–AD 4), Boran (630), and Sati Beg (1338/1339–1339/1340).
  27. ↑ Name in Chinese sources. His original name in Persian may have been Pušang. [110]
  28. ↑ Name in Chinese sources. [110] The original Persian name is unknown.
  29. ↑ Mardavij also fashioned a golden throne for himself, in imitation of the ancient throne of the Sasanian rulers. [149]
  30. ↑ Rukn al-Dawla claimed Iranian imperial status by 962, when he minted a medal depicting him similar to a Sasanian ruler with the inscription "may the glory of the king of kings increase". [149] 'Adud al-Dawla also claimed the title šāhānšāh by 965. In 969, he minted a medal with the inscriptions "šāhānšāh, may his glory increase" and "May šāh Panāh Khusraw live long". [152] The caliphs opposed Buyid use of the old imperial title. [152] 'Adud al-Dawla's son Baha al-Dawla is recorded to have used the Arabic version of 'King of Kings' (malik al-mulūk) and the title is also recorded in both Arabic and Persian for Baha al-Dawla's grandson Abu Kalijar Marzuban. [153] The title was sometimes assumed by rival emirs not part of the 'main branch' listed below, such as Fakhr al-Dawla and Musharrif al-Dawla.
  31. ↑ The other three were Musa (2 BC–AD 4), Boran (630), and Azarmidokht (630–631).
  32. ↑ The coronation of Safi II was followed by epidemics and famine. Court astrologers thus declared that he had been crowned at an inauspicious time. This prompted the shah to have himself re-crowned under the name Suleiman I in 1668. [229]

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The Daylamites or Dailamites were an Iranian people inhabiting the Daylam—the mountainous regions of northern Iran on the southwest coast of the Caspian Sea, now comprising the southeastern half of Gilan Province.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persian art</span>

Persian art or Iranian art has one of the richest art heritages in world history and has been strong in many media including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking and sculpture. At different times, influences from the art of neighbouring civilizations have been very important, and latterly Persian art gave and received major influences as part of the wider styles of Islamic art. This article covers the art of Persia up to 1925, and the end of the Qajar dynasty; for later art see Iranian modern and contemporary art, and for traditional crafts see arts of Iran. Rock art in Iran is its most ancient surviving art. Iranian architecture is covered at that article.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kings of Persis</span> Persian kings who were vassals to the Parthians until they formed the Sasanian Empire

The Kings of Persis, also known as the Darayanids, were a series of Iranian kings, who ruled the region of Persis in southwestern Iran, from the 2nd century BCE to 224 CE. They ruled as vassal kings of the Parthian Empire, until they toppled them and established the Sasanian Empire. They effectively formed some Persian dynastic continuity between the Achaemenid Empire and the Sasanian Empire.

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