List of paleotempestology records

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Paleotempestology is the study of past tropical cyclone activity by means of geological proxies as well as historical documentary records. The term was coined by American meteorologist Kerry Emanuel.

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PlaceCountry/stateData sourcesDuration of the record, in yearsConclusionsSourcesApproximate coordinates
Actun Tunichil Muknal Belize Oxygen and carbon isotopes in a quickly growing stalagmite AD 1977 – 2000Strong correlation of hits by named tropical cyclones with isotope ratio variations [1] [2] [3] 17°07′03″N88°53′26″W / 17.1174957°N 88.8904667°W / 17.1174957; -88.8904667 [4]
Amur Bay Russia Sediments from floods1,800Low storm activity in the last 500 years, probably correlated to the Little Ice Age but continuing into the 19th and 20th century [5] 43°05′29″N131°26′56″E / 43.0914432°N 131.4489867°E / 43.0914432; 131.4489867 [6]
Angliers Pond Florida Lake sedimentsAD 1920Three storm deposits, linked presumably to Hurricane Donna, Great Miami Hurricane and 1921 Tampa hurricane [7] 26°25′N82°04′W / 26.42°N 82.06°W / 26.42; -82.06 [8]
Anle Atoll ChinaAtoll overwash600Increased storm activity during the Little Ice Age [9] 9°55′56.75″N114°31′19.5″E / 9.9324306°N 114.522083°E / 9.9324306; 114.522083 [10]
Ara River Japan River terraces formed by typhoon flooding11,600Intense flooding during the late glacial to 5,000 – 4,500 years ago indicate increased typhoon activity, followed by a period of less intense activity until about 2,350 years ago [11] 35°N140°E / 35°N 140°E / 35; 140 [12]
Bay JimmyLouisianaSeafloor sediments1,200 yearsFour intense storms, including two recent ones [13] 29°27′06″N89°54′03″W / 29.4517531°N 89.9007164°W / 29.4517531; -89.9007164 "Bay Jimmy" (Map). Google Maps . Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda Sediments in a coastal lagoon5,000Inactive period between 2,500 – 1,500 years, preceded and followed by more active periods [14] 17°38′10″N61°52′45″W / 17.6361809°N 61.8792619°W / 17.6361809; -61.8792619 [15]
Basin BayouFloridaOverwash and inundation deposits2,000Over twice as active as today 900–1050 CE, with less activity 250 - 650 CE and 1150 - 1850 CE [16] 30°29′23″N86°14′47″W / 30.4897°N 86.2463°W / 30.4897; -86.2463 [17]
Belize, central Belize Overwash deposits5001.2-1 catastrophic storms per century including one very strong storm before 1500AD [18] 17°00′N88°15′W / 17.000°N 88.250°W / 17.000; -88.250 [19]
Belize, south-central Belize Sediments7,000Several active periods, between 6,900 – 6,700, 6,050 – 5,750, 5,450 – 4,750, 4,200 – 3,200, 2,600 – 1,450 and 600 – c. 200 years ago [20] 16°54′N88°18′W / 16.9°N 88.3°W / 16.9; -88.3 [21]
Big Pine Key Florida Tree ring evidence of storm damageAD 1700–presentDecreased activity correlated to decreased shipwreck rates in the Maunder Minimum [22] 25°N80°W / 25°N 80°W / 25; -80 [23]
Blackwood Sinkhole Bahamas Sand deposits in sinkhole3,000A stage without intense storms between 2,900 – 2,500 years ago, followed by an active period that lasted until 1,000 years ago. Two intense events about 500 years ago and an increase between 300 – 100 years ago [24] 27°N78°W / 27°N 78°W / 27; -78 [25]
Brigantine, New Jersey New Jersey Sediments1,500Two strong storms between 600–700 and 700–1,400 AD; nor'easters are also recorded here [26] [27] [28] 39°24′7″N74°21′52″W / 39.40194°N 74.36444°W / 39.40194; -74.36444 [29]
Cenote Chaltun Ha Yucatan Mud layers in speleothemsAD 365 – 2007Frequent flooding during the 7th, 9th and 19th century with less common flooding during the 13th and 15–17th centuries. Also, evidence of strong tropical cyclone strikes during the Terminal Classic Maya [30] 20°28′N89°10′W / 20.46°N 89.17°W / 20.46; -89.17 [31]
Commerce Bight Lagoon Belize Sediment cores7,000Active periods between 600 and 200, 1,450 – 2,600, 3,200 – 4,200, 4,750 – 5,450, 5,750 – 6,050 years ago [32] 16°50′N88°20′W / 16.833°N 88.333°W / 16.833; -88.333 [33]
Charlotte Harbor Florida Sediments8,000Increased activity between 3,000 – 2,000 years ago and also during El Nino-leaning periods [34] 26°50′N82°5′W / 26.833°N 82.083°W / 26.833; -82.083 [35]
Chaungtha Myanmar Washover deposits Cyclone Mala and two older tropical cyclones [36] 16°56′51″N94°22′13″E / 16.947505°N 94.370262°E / 16.947505; 94.370262 [37]
Chenier Plain Louisiana Sediments in coastal plain6007 hurricanes with category 3 or more intensity are known in the last 600 years, giving a frequency of 1.2 storms per century. Among the storms are Hurricane Audrey and Hurricane Rita [38] 29°45′54″N93°48′02″W / 29.7649394°N 93.8004488°W / 29.7649394; -93.8004488 [39] [40]
Chezzetcook Inlet Nova Scotia Sediment analysis1,000Potential storm deposits at 1200 AD, AD 1831 and AD 1848, the middle of which is correlated to a major storm; also an inactive phase in the 1950s and 1970s [41] 44°42′13″N63°15′30″W / 44.7035527°N 63.2583217°W / 44.7035527; -63.2583217 [42]
Codrington Lagoon Barbuda Sediment analysis3,700 Hurricane Irma is the only storm linked to a breach in the lagoon, although other previous hurricanes produced overwash deposits [43] 17°38′N61°51′W / 17.633°N 61.850°W / 17.633; -61.850 [44]
Cowley Beach Queensland Beach ridges5,740Low activity between 1,820 – 850 and 2,580 – 3,230 years ago [45] 17°39′18″S146°03′35″E / 17.6550966°S 146.0597959°E / -17.6550966; 146.0597959 [46]
Croatan National Forest North Carolina Tree rings AD 1771 – 2014Low activity in 1815–1875 [47] 34°58′19″N77°07′08″W / 34.972°N 77.119°W / 34.972; -77.119 [48] 34°44′35″N76°59′06″W / 34.743°N 76.985°W / 34.743; -76.985 [48]
Culebrita Puerto Rico Sediment deposits2,200Several sand layers may correlate to hurricanes, including one perhaps linked to the 1867 San Narciso hurricane [49] 18°19′14″N65°14′11″W / 18.32056°N 65.23639°W / 18.32056; -65.23639 [50]
Curacoa Island Queensland Beach ridges6,00022 hits by intense storms in 6,000 years, implying return periods of 280 years [51] 18°40′12″S146°32′08″E / 18.6701289°S 146.5354814°E / -18.6701289; 146.5354814 [52]
De Soto National Forest Mississippi Tree rings 1540–2012 CE Reconstruction of annual tropical cyclone rainfall totals, which exhibits a decrease after a major volcanic eruption. Presently the oldest paleohurricane reconstruction using tree rings. [53] 31°05′N89°05′W / 31.08°N 89.08°W / 31.08; -89.08 [53]
Durban South Africa Submarine depositsHoloceneIncreased storminess during the early Holocene and during times with strong Indian Ocean Dipole activity [54] 29°54′S31°00′E / 29.9°S 31.0°E / -29.9; 31.0 [55]
Duri Island South Korea Shell-gravel deposits1,300Storms in 720 ± 60, 880 ± 110, 950 ± 70, 995 ± 120 and 1535 ± 40, the latter occurring during the Little Ice Age and the others during the Medieval Climate Anomaly [56] 34°20′0″N126°36′20″E / 34.33333°N 126.60556°E / 34.33333; 126.60556 [57]
Eshaness British Isles Boulders perched on cliffs1,400Probably not tropical cyclones, but intense storm activity occurred since AD 1950, between 1,300 and 1,900 AD, 700–1,050 AD and 400 – 550 AD [58] [59] 60°30′N1°30′W / 60.5°N 1.5°W / 60.5; -1.5 [60]
Exmouth Gulf Australia, northwesternWashover fans3,000Tropical cyclone strikes took place 170 – 180 ± 16, 360 ± 30, 850 – 870 ± 60, 1,290 – 1,300 ± 90, 1,950 – 1,960 ± 90, 2,260 – 2,300 ± 120 and 2,830 – 2,850 ± 120 years ago, consistent with expectations based on sea surface temperature variations [61] [62] 22°15′00″S114°13′57″E / 22.2499987°S 114.2324904°E / -22.2499987; 114.2324904 [63]
Falso Bluff Marsh Nicaragua Sediment deposits5,400Last 800 years have an active climate with a return period of about 140–180 years, while between 800 and 2,800 the return period was only once between 600 and 2,100 years and another quiet period between 4,900 – 5,400 years ago; between 2,800 and 4,900 no records [64] 12°6.72′N83°41.42′W / 12.11200°N 83.69033°W / 12.11200; -83.69033 [65]
Folly Island South Carolina Back-barrier marshes4,600The last 4,600 years may have seen 27 storms, as well as 11 major storms in the last 3,300 years [66] 32°40′04″N80°00′02″W / 32.6676908°N 80.0004962°W / 32.6676908; -80.0004962 [67]
Frankland Islands Queensland Coastal ridges and coral mortality510Active periods are known from 1980 to 2000, 1940–1960, 1860–1880, 1800–1830, 1760–1780, 1700–1720, 1630–1650, 1570–1590 [68] 17°13′05″S146°04′05″E / 17.2180577°S 146.0681264°E / -17.2180577; 146.0681264 [69]
FranceFrance Tempestites Kimmeridgian Intense tropical cyclone activity from storms coming off the Tethys [70] Inapplicable
Gales Point Belize Sediment cores5,500In the last 5,500 years 16 major hurricanes [71] [72] 17°10′N88°15′W / 17.167°N 88.250°W / 17.167; -88.250 [19]
Galveston Bay TexasSediment cores1,820One hurricane about 1,000 years ago which caused major flooding [73] 29°22′10.60″N94°44′0.2″W / 29.3696111°N 94.733389°W / 29.3696111; -94.733389 [74]
Grand Case St. Martin Sediments4,280Active period between 3,700 – 1,800 years ago, while 1,800 –800 years ago was inactive [75] [76] 18°5′N63°5′W / 18.083°N 63.083°W / 18.083; -63.083 [77]
Grape Tree Pond Jamaica Sediments900-2,011 ADSubdued activity between 900-1350 and after 1950AD during the recent warm periods and Medieval Climate Anomaly, with increased activity during the Little Ice Age [78] 7°53′37″N76°37′06″W / 7.89361°N 76.61833°W / 7.89361; -76.61833 [79]
Great Bahama Bank Bahamas Coarse sediment deposits7,000Active periods occurred within the last 50 years, between 1,200 and 500 years ago, 2,400 – 1,800 years ago and 4,600 – 3,800 years ago, with low activity before 4,400 years [80] [81] 25°N80°W / 25°N 80°W / 25; -80 [82]
Great Blue Hole Belize Overwash deposits1,885Active periods between 800 and 500, 1,300 – 900 or 650 – 1,200 years ago and coinciding with the Medieval Warm Period [32] [83] [84] 17°18′58″N87°32′07″W / 17.3160476°N 87.5351438°W / 17.3160476; -87.5351438 [85]
Gulf of Carpentaria Australia Beach ridges7,500Low activity/intensity between 5,500 and 3,500, 2,700–1,800 and 1,000–500 years ago, the former coinciding with the Neoglacial [86] 14°07′33″S134°16′35″E / 14.1257239°S 134.2763924°E / -14.1257239; 134.2763924 [87]
Gulf of Thailand Thailand Beach ridges and a coastal marsh8,00018 typhoon strikes in the last 8,000 years, with increased activity in the mid-Holocene until 3,900 years ago (2–5 times more storms) either due to a warmer climate or higher sea level induced better sensitivity to storms [88] 12°N100°E / 12°N 100°E / 12; 100 [89]
Hainan Island China Deposits in lakes3501–2 typhoons per decade, with higher solar activity, positive Pacific Decadal Oscillation, La Nina and positive North Atlantic Oscillation correlating with decreases [90] 18°25′N110°2′E / 18.417°N 110.033°E / 18.417; 110.033 [91]
Hainan Island China Coastal dunes3,4008 storms in 1095 ± 90 BC, 900–1000 BC, 975 ± 50 AD, 1720 ± 20 AD, 1740 ± 35 AD, 1790 ± 25 AD, 1850 ± 15 AD, and 1895 ± 10 AD [92] 19°08′59″N108°48′42″E / 19.1498174°N 108.8116195°E / 19.1498174; 108.8116195 [93]
High Atlas Morocco Tempestite Toarcian Increased tropical cyclone activity during the hot Toarcian Oceanic Anoxic Event [94] Inapplicable
Cay Sal Bank Bahamas Subaqueous sediments530On average 18.7-20.6 category 1+ storms per century. 34 storms between 770 to 1870 CE, only 8 between 1916 and 2016 [95] 23°52′30″N79°45′00″W / 23.875°N 79.75°W / 23.875; -79.75 [96]
Ilan Plain Taiwan River erosion sediments in a lake2,000Between 500 – 700 and after AD 1400 intense typhoon rainfall [97] 24°36′N121°36′E / 24.600°N 121.600°E / 24.600; 121.600 [98]
Israel Israel Oxygen isotope ratios in rocks Cretaceous-Miocene Intense tropical cyclone activity in the Tethys until its closure 20 million years ago [99] Inapplicable
Jiangsu China Tidal flat deposits2,000ENSO and ITCZ influences; anticorrelation between Japan/Korea and SE China typhoon activity and decreased activity during the last two millennia [100] [101] 33°30′N121°00′E / 33.5°N 121.0°E / 33.5; 121.0 [102]
Kamikoshiki-jima Japan Sediments in coastal lagoons6,400Higher typhoon activity at the time of the Kamikaze typhoons, with high activity between 3,600 – 2,500 and between 1,000 – 300 years ago [103] [104] 31°50′N129°50′E / 31.833°N 129.833°E / 31.833; 129.833 [105]
Island Bay Florida Overwash deposits1,0003–4 storms in the last 500 years, 1–2 in 150 – 500 years before present and 11 storms between 1,000 – 500 years ago, all probably major hurricanes; one of the storms in the last 50 years is Hurricane Donna while the other might either be 1926 Miami hurricane, 1910 Cuba hurricane or the 1873 Central Florida Hurricane [106] 26°02′44″N81°48′42″W / 26.0456022°N 81.8116322°W / 26.0456022; -81.8116322 [107]
Kimberley Australia Flood deposits in stalagmites2,200Moderate activity between 1,450 – 850 AD and low activity between 500 – 850 and 1,450 – 1,650 AD [108] 15°11′S128°22′E / 15.18°S 128.37°E / -15.18; 128.37 [109]
Lady Elliot Island Queensland Beach ridges3,200Strong storms (at least Category 4 or Category 5) occur every 253 years [110] 24°06′47″S152°42′38″E / 24.1131252°S 152.7106403°E / -24.1131252; 152.7106403 [111]
Laguna Alejandro Dominican Republic Sediment analysis910Strikes c. 910, 800, 730, 530, 500, 330, 260, 210, 200 and 170 years ago [112] 18°18′47″N71°01′51″W / 18.313097°N 71.030802°W / 18.313097; -71.030802 [113]
Laguna Negra Nicaragua Deposits in a coastal lake8,000One very strong storm ("Hurricane Elisenda") 3,340 ± 50 years ago, at the same time as increased storm activity in Alabama and Florida [114] 12°2′42.05″N83°55′39.22″W / 12.0450139°N 83.9275611°W / 12.0450139; -83.9275611 [115]
Laguna Madre Texas Storm deposits3350 BC–AD 10500.46% probability of landfall any given year [80] 26°41′05″N97°32′23″W / 26.6847955°N 97.5397182°W / 26.6847955; -97.5397182 [116]
Laguna Playa Grande Puerto Rico Overwash sediments5,0000.48% probability of landfall any given year, but an active period in the last 250 years and previous active periods between 2,500 – 1,000 and 3,600 – 5,400 years ago. El Nino is linked with lower activity, a strong West African Monsoon with higher activity [80] [117] [118] 18°05′N65°31′W / 18.09°N 65.52°W / 18.09; -65.52 [119]
Lake Daija Japan Sediments in a coastal lagoon2,000Beginning at 250 AD increased activity, while a quiet period has lasted from 1600 AD to today. Typhoon Jean, Typhoon Grace and others have been identified, including two deposits that may correlate to the Kamikaze typhoons which also coincide within an active period. Recorded storms appear to be of category 3 or higher strength [120] 32°14′N129°59′E / 32.24°N 129.98°E / 32.24; 129.98 [103]
Lake Kogare-Iki JapanSediments in a lake3,000Mostly tsunamis, but also the 1959 Isewan typhoon [121] 34°16′30″N136°32′40″E / 34.27500°N 136.54444°E / 34.27500; 136.54444 [122]
Lake Shelby Alabama Storm deposits4,80011 intense storms between 3,500 and 700 years ago, a quiet period before 3,200 radiocarbon years ago may be either a stage of inactivity or a change in the lake environment. Comparisons to Hurricane Frederic and Hurricane Ivan imply that the intense storms reached category 4 or 5 intensity [123] [80] [124] [125] 30°15′N87°40′W / 30.250°N 87.667°W / 30.250; -87.667 [126]
Lake Tiriara Cook Islands Minerals from simultaneous seawater intrusion and island erosion3,500Two storms between 3,200 – 2,800 and 200 years ago [127] 21°57′S157°57′W / 21.950°S 157.950°W / -21.950; -157.950 [128]
Lantau Island Hong KongMarine sediments1,200Increased storm intensity during the Medieval Warm Period, with more but possibly weaker storms during the Little Ice Age and an increase in storm intensity after it [129] 22°07′N113°32′E / 22.12°N 113.53°E / 22.12; 113.53 [130]
Li'an Bay ChinaLagoon sediments1,600Increased activity 405-700, 980–1270, 1520–1850 and 1860–2015 CE [131] 18°25.5′N110°3′E / 18.4250°N 110.050°E / 18.4250; 110.050 [132]
Lingyang Reef South China Sea Storm deposits3,500Between 3,100 – 1,800 years ago only weak activity, followed and preceded by strong activity; intense storms about once every ten years in the last 3,500 years and the storm activity correlates to sea surface temperatures [133] 16°28′N111°35′E / 16.467°N 111.583°E / 16.467; 111.583 [134]
Little Lake Alabama Overwash deposits1,200Seven strikes in 1,200 years, including Hurricane Ivan [135] [136] 30°16.38′N87°36.92′W / 30.27300°N 87.61533°W / 30.27300; -87.61533 [136]
Little Sippewissett Marsh Massachusetts Overwash deposits400Annual landfall probability is about 2.3%, 4% in the last 50 years [137] 41°30′N71°30′W / 41.500°N 71.500°W / 41.500; -71.500 [138]
Long Island New York Overwash deposits3,500Increased activity during the Little Ice Age and an inactive period between 900 and 250 years ago [139] 40°35′N73°36′W / 40.59°N 73.6°W / 40.59; -73.6 [27]
Long Island blue hole BahamasDeposits in blue holes 1,050Active between 1,245–1,290, 1,395–1,500, 1,590–1,650 and 1,775–1,845 AD in particular the most recent period. Inactive during 1,161–1,213, 1,528–1,585, 1,651–1,713, 1,877–1,927 and 1,933–2,003 AD [140] 23°15′54″N75°07′01″W / 23.265°N 75.117°W / 23.265; -75.117 [141]
Lower Mystic Lake Massachusetts Varves formed by post-storm sedimentation1000Up to eight Category 2–3 hurricanes occurred per century in the 12th to 16th century, while the preceding and the two subsequent ones only saw 2–3 such storms per century [58] [142] 42°25.60′N71°8.8′W / 42.42667°N 71.1467°W / 42.42667; -71.1467 [142]
Manatee Bay Jamaica Multideposits1,200Four overwash deposits, one of which probably from a tsunami and the most recent one from Hurricane Ivan and Hurricane Dean [143] 17°50′36″N76°59′10″W / 17.8432086°N 76.9861149°W / 17.8432086; -76.9861149 "Manatee Bay" (Map). Google Maps . Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Mangrove Lake BermudaLagoon deposits1,600 yearsIncreased activity between 1,200 - 1,800 AD [144]
Matagorda Island TexasSediment core4,500Numerous storms resembling Hurricane Carla, in particular between 3,900-4,400 and 300–0 years ago. Breaks between 2100-1600, 2900-2400 and 3500–3000 years ago [145] 28°06′N96°36′W / 28.1°N 96.6°W / 28.1; -96.6 [146]
Mattapoisett Marsh Massachusetts Storm inundation deposits2,200Inactive period between 2,200 and 1,000 followed by an active period in the last 800 years [26] [147] 41°30′N71°00′W / 41.5°N 71°W / 41.5; -71 [148]
Miaodao ChinaStorm deposits80,000 Marine isotope stage 5e storm frequency comparable to that of Holocene low-latitude China [149] 37°56′31.9″N120°40′35.9″E / 37.942194°N 120.676639°E / 37.942194; 120.676639 [150]
Middle Caicos Island Turks and Caicos Islands SedimentsPast 1,520 yearsMaximum activity between 1,550-1,900 with 8 events/century. Active periods in 690-760, 960-1,100, 1,550-1,900 and inactive ones in 98-595, 618-690, 758-813, 831-901, 1,444-1,514 and 1,961-2,017 AD [151] 21°43′N71°49′W / 21.72°N 71.81°W / 21.72; -71.81 [152]
Mullet Pond Florida Sediments in a sinkhole 4,500Active periods with intense storms 650 – 750 years ago, 925 – 875 years ago, 1,250 – 1,150 years ago, 2,800 – 2,300 years ago, 3,350 – 3,250 years ago, 3,600 – 3,500 years ago and 3,950 – 3,650 years ago; the maximum occurrence rate between 2,300 and 2,800 years ago saw six storms per century while the last 150 years have been fairly inactive. Mullet Pond records also somewhat weaker storms and shows a recurrence rate of 3.9 events per century. [80] [153] [154] [155] 30°00′N84°30′W / 30°N 84.5°W / 30; -84.5 [156]
Onslow Bay North Carolina Backbarrier deposits1,500Poor preservation; only 5–8 deposits in 1,500 years [157] 34°N77°W / 34°N 77°W / 34; -77 [158]
Oyster Pond Massachusetts Sand layers in organic deposits1,250One of the earliest paleotempestological records; nine sand layers were interpreted as evidence for hurricanes [159] [160] 41°40′44″N69°58′37″W / 41.6789627°N 69.977068°W / 41.6789627; -69.977068 [161]
Paracel Islands China Porcelain in shipwrecksShipwrecks more common during the Little Ice Age [162] 15°N114°E / 15°N 114°E / 15; 114 [163]
Pascagoula Marsh Louisiana Sediments4,500 (radiocarbon years)Storms occur about all 300 years; hyperactive period between 3,800 and 1,000 years ago [164] 30°21′45″N88°37′25″W / 30.3624983°N 88.6235212°W / 30.3624983; -88.6235212 [165]
Pearl River Marsh Louisiana Sediments4,500 (radiocarbon years)Storms occur about all 300 years; hyperactive period between 3,800 and 1,000 years ago [164]
Pelican Cays BelizeSediment1,200Active period between 1740-1950 CE and inactive 850-1018 CE [166] 16°40′N88°12′W / 16.667°N 88.200°W / 16.667; -88.200 [167]
Pinqing Lagoon Guangdong Province, China Sediments1,850 CE - presentSeven typhoons in 130 years [168] 22°46′N115°24′E / 22.77°N 115.4°E / 22.77; 115.4 [169]
Playa Los Cocos Baja California Sur, Mexico SedimentsOne tsunami 530 BP and hurricanes 770, 600, 280 and 0 (Hurricane Olivia most likely) BP [170] 26°27′N111°33′W / 26.45°N 111.55°W / 26.45; -111.55 [171]
Pozo Uno Mona Island Cave deposits6,260-4,700Precipitation increased by solar activity and decreased by ENSO variability [172] 18°06′N67°54′W / 18.1°N 67.9°W / 18.1; -67.9 [173]
Princess Charlotte Bay Queensland, Australia Beach ridges3,00012 hits by intense storms in 6,000 years, implying return periods of 180 years [51] 14°25′00″S143°58′57″E / 14.4166658°S 143.9824904°E / -14.4166658; 143.9824904 [174]
Chillagoe Queensland Stalagmites8002 strong storms between AD 1400 – 1600 after two centuries without one, seven strong storms between AD 1600 and AD 1800 and only one strong storm after that [58] [175] 17°12′S144°36′E / 17.2°S 144.6°E / -17.2; 144.6 [175]
Robinson Lake Nova Scotia Sediments in lake800Storms at c. 1475, 1530, 1575, 1670 and Hurricane Juan. The record probably reflects storms of at least category 2 [176] 44°39.114′N63°16.631′W / 44.651900°N 63.277183°W / 44.651900; -63.277183 [177]
Rockingham Bay Queensland Sand ridges5,000Intense storms occurred between 130 and 1,550 years ago as well as between 3,380 – 5,010 years ago, while the time between 1,550 – 2,280 years ago had very weak storms [178] 18°02′S146°3′E / 18.033°S 146.050°E / -18.033; 146.050 [179]
Salt Pond Massachusetts Sediments in a lake2,00035 hurricanes with active periods between 150 -1,150 AD and 1,400 – 1,675 AD; one historical hurricane (Hurricane Bob) recorded; some storms are stronger than the most intense hurricane there, the Great Colonial Hurricane of 1635 [180]
San Salvador Island Bahamas Lake sediments4,000Increased storm activity between 3,400 and 1,000 years ago. Recurrence rate of strong hurricanes appears to be much less than the historical rate, which may be due to measurement issues [181] 24°05′N74°30′W / 24.083°N 74.500°W / 24.083; -74.500 [182]
Santiago de Cuba Cuba Deposits in a coastal lagoon4,000Active periods occurred between 2,600 – 1,800 years ago and between 500 and 250 years ago [183] 19°56′55″N76°32′22″W / 19.9486°N 76.5395°W / 19.9486; -76.5395 [184]
Sara Oreum South Korea Sediments in volcanic crater10,000Correlation with ENSO activity [185] 33°22′15″N126°34′04″E / 33.3709058°N 126.5678996°E / 33.3709058; 126.5678996 [186]
Scarborough Shoal South China Sea Coral bouldersNorthward migration of typhoon activity during the recent warm period [187] 15°09′18″N117°39′00″E / 15.155°N 117.65°E / 15.155; 117.65 [188]
Scrub Island Anguilla Lagoon deposits1,600Two tsunami deposits, one of which linked to the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Of the 23 remaining deposits most likely linked to hurricanes, one probably belongs to Hurricane Dog in 1950 and another to an unnamed hurricane in 1923. Increased activity in 445–525, 720–835, 1080–1230, 1625–1695, 1745–1890 and 1920–1970 including the Medieval Warm Period and decreased activity in 560, ~670, 965–1020,1400–1600, ~1740 cal. CE. [189] 18°20′N63°00′W / 18.333°N 63.000°W / 18.333; -63.000 [190]
Sea Breeze New Jersey Sediments AD 214 – presentStorm deposits were emplaced between AD1875-1925, before AD1827, before AD1665-1696, in the 14th–15th century, before AD950-1040, AD429-966 and before AD260-520 [191] 39°19′N75°19′W / 39.317°N 75.317°W / 39.317; -75.317 [192]
Seoraksan National Park South Korea Tree ringsAS 1,652 - 2,005Decreasing landfalling storms after volcanic eruptions. High activity between 1993 and 1997 [193] 38°10′N128°20′E / 38.167°N 128.333°E / 38.167; 128.333 [194]
Seguine Pond New York Overwash deposits300Severe storm surges associated with the 1821 Norfolk and Long Island hurricane and Hurricane Sandy [195] 40°33′52″N74°17′13″W / 40.564521°N 74.2869025°W / 40.564521; -74.2869025 [196]
Shark Bay Western Australia Shell beach ridge6,000An inactive period between about 5,400 and 3,700 years ago accompanied by drought. Storm intensity indicated by the ridges is about category 2–4 on the Saffir-Simpson scale, while no case of category 5 is inferred [58] [197] 26°30′S113°36′E / 26.5°S 113.6°E / -26.5; 113.6 [198]
Shark River Slough Florida Sediment cores4,600Decrease of storm activity after 2,800 years ago [199] 25°39′21″N80°42′37″W / 25.6559369°N 80.7103492°W / 25.6559369; -80.7103492 [200]
Shark River Slough Florida Sediment cores3,500Active periods 3,400–3,000, 2,200–1,500, 1,000–800, 600–300, and ~150–0 years ago [201] 25°21′10″N81°6′52″W / 25.35278°N 81.11444°W / 25.35278; -81.11444 [202]
Shinnecock Bay New York SedimentsOlder than 1938ADSeveral historical deposits by the 1938 New England hurricane, Hurricane Carol, either Hurricane Donna or Hurricane Esther and the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962 [203] 40°50′N72°32′W / 40.83°N 72.53°W / 40.83; -72.53 [204]
Shotgun PondFloridaOverwash and inundation deposits2,000Higher activity than the historical period 650–1000, 1100–1300, 1350–1450, and 1750–1850 AD, and lower activity than today 450–650, 1000–1100, 1300–1350, and 1500–1750 AD; Hurricane Michael in 2018 left a deposit [16] 29°55′54″N84°21′18″W / 29.9316°N 84.355°W / 29.9316; -84.355 [17]
Singleton Swash South Carolina Sediments in tidal deposits3,500Historical storms like Hurricane Hazel and Hurricane Hugo are recorded, with more storms until 1050 BC. Between 3050 and 1050 BC there are no storm deposits, but one deposit dating to 3750 BC appears to relate to a very intense event, perhaps due to a warmer climate at that time [205] 33°45′20″N78°48′43″W / 33.7554485°N 78.8119756°W / 33.7554485; -78.8119756 [206]
Silver Slipper West Mississippi Overwash deposits and microfossils2,500Deposits from Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Camille are present and serve as modern analogues to reconstruct storm surge height for stormy intervals between 350 BC–AD 50 and AD 1050–1350. The decline in activity after AD 1350 coincides with a southward shift in the mean position of the Loop Current [207] 30°15′06″N89°25′41″W / 30.251649°N 89.427932°W / 30.251649; -89.427932 [208]
South Andros Island Bahamas Deposits in blue holes 1,500Mainly intense tropical cyclones recorded, including unnamed 1919 and 1945 Category 3 hurricanes although a weaker storm in 1945 might have also contributed. In general there are phases of high and low activity associated with phase changes of the ITCZ volcanic activity and the Little Ice Age [209] 23°47′N77°41′W / 23.78°N 77.69°W / 23.78; -77.69 [210]
St. Catherines Island Georgia Sediment cores+3,0007 storms in 3,300 years, equating a recurrence rate of 1 every 471 years. An active period ended 1,100 years before present [211] 31°37′41″N81°13′43″W / 31.6279865°N 81.2284741°W / 31.6279865; -81.2284741 [212]
Spring Creek Pond Florida Storm layers4,500An active period between about 600 and 1,700 years ago, but fewer major hurricanes in the last 600 years [80] [213] 30°00′N84°30′W / 30°N 84.5°W / 30; -84.5 [156]
Succotash Marsh Rhode Island Sediment overwash700 yearsOver 6 intense storms in the last 700 years [26] [214] 41°22′47″N71°31′16″W / 41.37972°N 71.52111°W / 41.37972; -71.52111 [214]
Tahaa French Polynesia Overwash deposits5,000Increased activity between 5,000 – 3,800 and 2,900 – 500 years ago with relative inactivity since [215] 16°37′51″S151°33′43″W / 16.6308026°S 151.5620333°W / -16.6308026; -151.5620333 [216]
Thatchpoint Bluehole Bahamas Sediments AD 1010–presentRecorded storms include Hurricane Jeanne in 2004; active periods between 1050 and 1150 AD, a very active period between 1350-1650AD, a reincrease in the late 18th century [217] 26°19.408′N77°17.590′W / 26.323467°N 77.293167°W / 26.323467; -77.293167 [218]
Tutaga Tuvalu Coral blocks moved by storms1,100Increased storminess c. 1,100, 750, 600 and 350 years ago; correlated with storminess in French Polynesia and a recurrence rate of about 100–150 years [219] 8°32′S179°5′E / 8.533°S 179.083°E / -8.533; 179.083 [220]
Tzabnah Cave Yucatan Oxygen isotope ratios in stalagmites AD 750 and earlierLow tropical cyclone activity at the time of the Classical Maya collapse, and more generally coinciding with drought [221] 20°45′N89°28′W / 20.750°N 89.467°W / 20.750; -89.467 [222]
Valdosta State University Georgia Oxygen isotope ratios in tree ringsAD 1770 – 1990Historical storms have been recorded, as well as a trio in 1911–1913 and a strong event in 1780 [223] [224] 30°50′56″N83°17′21″W / 30.8489491°N 83.2892064°W / 30.8489491; -83.2892064 [225]
Wallaby Island Australia Beach ridges4,100Strong storms (category 5) occur every 180 years [110]
Walsingham Cavern Bermuda Sediments in submarine cave3,100Increased storm activity between 3,000 – 1,700 and 600 – 150 years ago; however this record might include extratropical storms [226] [227] 32°20′N64°40′W / 32.333°N 64.667°W / 32.333; -64.667 [228]
Wassaw Island Georgia Overwash1,900At least eight deposits from strong hurricanes between 1,000 – 2,000 years ago, with a quiet period between 1,100 and 250 years ago [26] [229] 31°54′20″N80°59′49″W / 31.9054647°N 80.996943°W / 31.9054647; -80.996943 [230]
Western Lake Florida, northwesternOverwash deposits7,000Between 3,800 – 1,000 years ago strike probability was about 0.5% per year, followed and preceded by relative inactivity [231] [232] 30°19′31″N86°9′12″W / 30.32528°N 86.15333°W / 30.32528; -86.15333 [232]
Whale Beach New Jersey Sand sheets in marshes AD 1300–presentTwo major hurricanes in 700 years, one between 1278–1438 and the other is the 1821 Norfolk and Long Island hurricane [233] [27] [234] 39°11′00″N74°40′17″W / 39.18333°N 74.67139°W / 39.18333; -74.67139 [234]
Wonga Beach Queensland, northernBeach ridges4,500An inactive period between about 3,800 and 2,100 years ago was followed by an active on between 2,100 and 900 years ago [58] [235] 16°25′23″S145°25′8″E / 16.42306°S 145.41889°E / -16.42306; 145.41889 [236]
Xincun Bay China, southernLagoonal sediments7,500Seven storm periods in the last 7,500 years, including active periods between 5,500 and 3,500 and from 1,700 years ago onwards, with inactive period in between; there are also (in)active periods embedded within these active(inactive) ones and there is more generally a correlation to storm activity elsewhere in southern China and to ENSO variations [237] 18°25′N110°0′E / 18.417°N 110.000°E / 18.417; 110.000 [238]
XRY CaveChinaSpeleothems1951-2018 CETyphoon activity reflected in cave deposits [239]
Yok Balum Cave Belize Oxygen isotope ratios in speleothems AD 1550 – 1983After an inactive phase (~1 storm/year) in the middle 16th century, an increase to ~8 storms/year in the 17th century associated with the Little Ice Age. Then a steady decrease until 1870, when occurrence halved and dropped to ~2 storms/year [240] 16°12′30.780″N89°4′24.420″W / 16.20855000°N 89.07345000°W / 16.20855000; -89.07345000 [241]
Yongshu Reef South China Sea Coral blocks relocated by storms4,000Six strikes in 1,000 years, with two during the Little Ice Age and four during the Medieval Climate Anomaly. Also high storm activity around 1200 AD, 400 BC and 1200 BC [242] [243] 9°37′N112°58′E / 9.617°N 112.967°E / 9.617; 112.967 [244]
Zhejiang-Fujian mud belt East China Sea Marine sediment cores2,000Increased activity between 0–480 CE, 790–1230 CE, and 1940–2018 CE [245] 28°41′N122°25′E / 28.69°N 122.41°E / 28.69; 122.41 [246]

Non-tropical examples

PlaceCountry/stateData sourcesRecord duration in years before presentConclusionsSourcesApproximate coordinates
Île d'Yeu FranceHigh-energy sedimentation8,000Between around 5720–5520 BC and 5050 BC–AD 360, storm activity was less meaningful. Increased storminess occurred AD 1350–1450, 150 BC–year 0, 900–400 BC, 1550–1320 BC, 3450–3420 BC, and 4700–4560 BC. [247] [248] 46°42′32″N2°21′35″W / 46.7089013°N 2.35959579529°W / 46.7089013; -2.35959579529 [249]
Petite Mer de Gâvres and Traicts du Croisic FranceOverwash deposits1,000Intense storm causing severe damage and long-lasting flooding along much of Europe's coastline in 1351–1352, 1469, 1645, 1711 and 1751 AD. [250]
Pierre Blanche and Prevost lagoons FranceOverwash deposits1,500Four intense storms in the last 1,500 years [251] [252] 43°32′N3°54′E / 43.53°N 3.9°E / 43.53; 3.9 [253]

See also

Notes

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