Temple of Apollo Patroos

Last updated
Plan of the Agora ca. 300 BC; the temple of Apollo Patroos is number 5. Plan Agora of Athens Classical colored.svg
Plan of the Agora ca. 300 BC; the temple of Apollo Patroos is number 5.

The Temple of Apollo Patroos (meaning "of the fathers") is a small ruined temple on the west side of the Ancient Agora of Athens. The original temple was an apsidal structure, built in the mid-sixth century BC and destroyed in 480/79 BC. The area probably remained sacred to Apollo. A new hexastyle ionic temple was built ca. 306-300 BC, which has an unusual L-shaped floor plan. Some fragments from the sculptural decoration of this structure survive. The colossal cult statue, by Euphranor, has also been recovered.

Contents

Next to the temple was a tiny shrine, built around the mid-fourth century BC. identified as the Temple of Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria; it may originally have been built to house Euphranor's cult statue.

History and description

Temple of Apollo Patroos, seen from northwest. Foundation of the Temple of Apollo Patroos.JPG
Temple of Apollo Patroos, seen from northwest.

The current temple is the second structure on the site. It is located on the west side of the Agora, beneath the Kolonos Agoraios (Agora hill) and the Temple of Hephaestus. The Stoa of Zeus is located immediately to the north. To the south was an open space and then the Metroon. The space to the east was open, until the Roman period, when the Temple of Ares was built there. [1] The identification of these archaeological remains as the Temple of Apollo Patroos was initially based on the account of Pausanias, who mentions the temple after the Stoa of Zeus and before the Metroon. [2]

Archaic temple

The first temple on the site is attested by trenches cut into the bedrock, which held foundations made of fieldstones in clay. It faced east and had an apse with a diameter of about 8.50 metres at the west end. On the central axis of this apse was a grey poros block which probably supported a cult statue or perhaps a column. [3] Pottery found in the foundation trenches indicate construction around the middle of the sixth century BC. [4] Chips of Parian marble found in the fill perhaps derive from the construction of this temple. [5] A pit to the south contained fragments of a mould used to cast a bronze statue of a nude male, perhaps the temple's cult statue. [6] The temple had fallen into ruin before the construction of the Stoa of Zeus. It was probably destroyed during the Persian Sack of Athens in 480/79 BC. [4]

Charles Hedrick questions whether this building was actually a temple, but offers no alternative reconstruction. [7]

Classical period

After this, the area was left empty, as indicated by a set of benches built behind the temple in the mid-fifth century BC, looking east over the Agora. [8] [9]

A boundary stone (horos) from the fifth century is inscribed "boundary stone of Apollo Patroos" (Agora XIX no. 11, inventory number I 5569). This seems to indicate that the area remained sacred to the god. [8] Homer Thompson presumes an open-air sanctuary at this time. [9] In the first half of the fourth century, the area was levelled and a wall was built which runs along the west side of the area for 11.5 metres and then runs east for 17 metres, over the top of the remains of the archaic temple. [10] This bisection of the archaic structure leads Charles Hedrick to doubt that the area was sacred in this period or in the archaic period. [11] In the mid-fourth century a bothros (pit for perishable offerings) was dug in the north part of the area. [12] [10] The tiny temple of Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria was built over the top of this bothros in the second half of the fourth century. [13] Lawall and Stewart suggest that it was initially dedicated to Apollo Patroos. [14]

The sanctuary's altar was gilded by Neoptolemus son of Anticles in the 330s or 320s BC. IG II2 4984 inscribed "Of Apollo Patroos" may be part of this altar. [15]

Hellenistic temple

The current temple faces east and was a hexastyle prostyle temple, meaning that it had six columns along the front. It is believed to have been built in the Ionic order on the basis of four architectural fragments that seem to fit the temple's dimensions. [16] The main structure is 10.13 metres wide and 16.76 metres long. Of that length, 4.88 metres is the pronaos and 9.28 metres is the cella. On the right side of the cella at the back is a doorway leading to further chamber, which is 4.93 metres wide north to south and 5.62 metres long east to west. This room functioned as the adyton, the innermost shrine. [8] The tiny temple of Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria is tucked into the space in front of this back room. [17]

The foundations of the temple consisted of a packing of unworked limestone blocks resting on top of the bedrock. The toichobate is made of conglomerate and the euthynteria of hard poros. The walls were limestone. Marble fragments of the supersturcture have been found: steps from the porch, the Ionic base of a pilaster, and a fragment from the geison. [8]

The temple was probably built around 306-300 BC. A Thasian amphora found in its foundations places the construction date after 313 BC and the sculptures of the pediment have been dated stylistically to the last decade of the fourth century BC. [18] [14] [notes 1] Andrew Stewart proposes that the construction of the temple was part of an effort to emphasise Athens ties to the Ionian cities of western Asia Minor, which it considered to be its colonies, after it became part of Antigonus Monophthalmus and Demetrius Poliorcetes' realm, which was based in Asia Minor, in 306 BC. [19] As the father of Ion, Apollo represented Athens' Ionian heritage. [20]

Cult statue

Colossal statue of Apollo (Agora inv. S 2154), possibly the statue of Euphranor Athens Ancient Agora Apollo.jpg
Colossal statue of Apollo (Agora inv. S 2154), possibly the statue of Euphranor

The 2nd-century AD travel writer Pausanias Pausanias reports that the temple contained a cult statue carved by Euphranor. This has been identified with a colossal statue of Apollo (Agora inv. S 2154), which was probably found near the temple, split vertically into two pieces. [2] [21] This statue depicts a male figure in a peplos and himation; the head and both arms are lost, but the statue's long hair is partially preserved on its left shoulder. [22] In its current state, it is 2.54 metres high. [23] The original marble block would have been about 2.8 metres high, 1.2 metres wide and 0.75 metres deep, and weighed around 6.5 tonnes. [23] The head and left forearm (both now lost) were made of separate pieces of marble. [24] There are traces of a socket in the left armpit probably used to support a kithara which the statue held. [25] It can be dated to the mid-fourth century on stylistic grounds. [26] The back is only roughly worked and was not intended to be seen, indicating that it stood against a wall. [14] Imitations of it are known, including a contemporary votive statuette from the Agora and Roman period statues. [26]

Whether this is the statue by Euphranor has been heavily debated. Arguments in support of the identification are the fact that it stood against a wall, is a very high-quality work, was probably found near the temple, is very large, and was frequently copied. [27] Andrew Stewart proposes that it was built to emphasise Athenian ties with the cities of Ionia in the waning years of the Second Athenian League. [28] The statue was probably damaged during the Herulian Sack in 267 AD and was subsequently chopped in half vertically, probably in preparation for loading it into a lime kiln. [23]

Pausanias mentions two further statues of Apollo: one made by Leochares, which was probably bronze, [20] and an Apollo Alexikakos ("averter of evil") made by Calamis. Pausanias claims that the latter was dedicated in thanksgiving for the end of the Plague of Athens in 427 BC, [29] but this is hard to reconcile with other evidence which places his floruit in the mid-fifth century BC. [2] [30] Pausanias says these statues stood "in front of the temple"; it is unclear whether this means that they were located to the east of the structure or stood in the pronaos, where benches along the front of the cross-wall could have accommodated statue bases. [31] [8] [32]

Two marble omphaloi found at the southwest corner of the Metroon and two more found to the north might be votive offerings given to Apollo Patroos. [33]

Pedimental sculpture

The pediment over the east face of the temple would have been around 9 metres wide and 1.125 metres high at the centre. [34] Two sculptures found in the Agora have been connected with this pediment, which seems to have depicted an epiphany of Apollo. [35] One of them is the lower part of a female figure in a chiton and himation sitting on a rock and looking to her left (inv. S 1530). She was identified by Thompson as a Muse, [36] and Stewart dates her to ca. 310-300 BC. [37] The other is the lower part of an male figure in a long chiton and himation, seated on a throne, possibly with his arms raised (inv. 2110), which Stewart dates to ca. 310-300 BC and identifies as Apollo. [38] They are on the same scale and appear to be by the same sculptors who carved the altar of the Asclepieium on Kos (probably the sons of Praxiteles). [39]

Acroteria

The Chiaramonti Niobid, a Roman copy of the same statue type as the temple's best-preserved acroterium. Niobide Chiaramonti, II sec. d.C. -FG.jpg
The Chiaramonti Niobid, a Roman copy of the same statue type as the temple's best-preserved acroterium.

Three of the four acroteria have been identified. They depicted the murder of the Niobids by Apollo and Artemis.

The right corner acroterion was a running girl in chiton, an Attic peplos, and himation (inv S 440). She is probably a Niobid, [40] modelled on the Uffizi/Chiaramonti type, which is known from many Roman copies; [notes 2] the original was probably part of the Choragic Monument of Thrasyllos, which was built in 320/19 BC. [41]

The other acroteria are preserved only as small fragments. A portion of the drapery from the Argive/Doric peplos of another fleeing Niobid (inv. S 1877) is part of the left corner acroterion. [39] A portion of the chest of a female figure (inv. S 3330), probably Artemis, likely formed part of the central acroterion, since it is slightly larger than the others. [42] She was probably accompanied by a sculpture of Apollo, but no traces of this have been found. [43] Stylistically, all of these sculptures date to the last decade of the fourth century BC. [44]

Cult

There were several sanctuaries of different aspects of Apollo at Athens. Apollo Patroos ("of the fathers") represented Apollo's role as protector of families, tribes, gene, ad phratries, and as progenitor of the Athenians, as the father of Ion, ancestor of the Ionians. Literary sources often identify him with Apollo Pythios ("Pythian Apollo"), who was worshipped in Athens at the Pythion. [45] [46] [20] Athenian children who were admitted to a phratry (cult association) were brought into a shrine of Apollo Patroos as part of a ceremony called the Meion - it is probable that this occurred in separate sanctuaries belonging to the phratries in question. [2] [47] Some gene (another kind of cult associations) and phratries, like the Gephyraei, Therrhicleidae, and Elasidae, had their own sanctuaries and priests of Apollo Patroos; others, like the Salaminii, did not sn therefore probably sacrificed to him at this temple. [2] Athenians selected as archon were required to prove that they had their own cult of Apollo Patroos and indicate where it was located before they could assume office. [1] During the reign of Emperor Claudius (AD 41–54), the cult of the emperor was merged with that of Apollo Patroos. [48]

A number of priests of the temple are attested in inscriptions:

The priest of the Apollo Patroos also had a designated seat in the Theatre of Dionysus.

Temple of Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria

The temple of Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria is a small shrine (naiskos) built in the second half of the fourth century BC, before the Hellenistic temple of Apollo Patroos, which surrounds it on the west and south sides. [8] [13] The Stoa of Zeus is 4 metres to the north. [13] It was a small rectangular structure which faced east and measured 5.2 metres in length and 3.65 metres in width. The remains consist of conglomerate foundations and grey poros blocks from the toichobate. A 1.5 metre wide base at the rear of the cella, could have supported a pair of cult statues. [49] The original floor was made of brown mortar with red-painted pebbles. Later it was replaced with a floor of lime mortar containing Pentelic marble chips. [49] A 4-metre deep and 4.8 metre wide porch was added to the front of the temple between ca. 150 and 86 BC. [50] It was paved with marble and reached by a number of steps. [49] [8]

Temple of Zeus Phratrios & Athena Phratria Temple of Zeus Phratrios & Athena Phratria.jpg
Temple of Zeus Phratrios & Athena Phratria

The identification of the temple is controversial. [51] It is based on a small, square marble altar, inscribed "Of Zeus Phratrios and of Athena Phratrios." This was discovered on the other side of the Agora, but seems to fit a poros base found in front of the temple. [52] [8] Hedrick questions the identification, preferring to place the altar in front of the north end of the Stoa of Attalos, where it was found. He notes that a boundary stone inscribed "sacred to Zeus Phratrios and Athena" was also found in this area. [53] Lippolis and Greco propose that the temple was instead dedicated to Zeus Eleutherios, Lawall that it was for Apollo Patroos. [14] Andrew Stewart expands on this, suggesting that it was originally built for the colossal statue of Apollo, demolished in order to move the statue to the new temple of Apollo Patroos, and then rebuilt and rededicated to Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria. [54]

Excavation history

The temple was first excavated by Wilhelm Dörpfeld for the German Archaeological Institute in 1895 and 1896, who identified it as the Stoa Basileios. [55] [56] The Greek Archaeological Society conducted further excavations in 1907 and 1908, during which the colossal statue of Apollo was found. [57] [56] Fuller investigation was undertaken as part of the excavations of the Agora by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens from 1931 to 1935. [58] It was first identified as the temple of Apollo Patroos in 1935. [59]

Notes

  1. ↑ Previously, Shear 1935 , p. 353 Travlos 1971 , p. 96 dated the temple to the Lycurgan period (338-326 BC).
  2. ↑ Stewart 2017 , pp. 298–300, 312 lists the Chiaramonti Niobid (Museo Gregoriano Profano no. 1035), the Running Niobid (found in Rome, now Galleria degli Uffizi no. 72), a statue found at the villa of Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus at Ciampino in 2013, and a first century AD fragment found in the Agora (inv. S 1046).

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acropolis of Athens</span> Ancient citadel above the city of Athens

The Acropolis of Athens is an ancient citadel located on a rocky outcrop above the city of Athens, Greece, and contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historical significance, the most famous being the Parthenon. The word Acropolis is from the Greek words ἄκρον and πόλις. The term acropolis is generic and there are many other acropoleis in Greece. During ancient times the Acropolis of Athens was also more properly known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man Cecrops, the supposed first Athenian king.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phidias</span> Greek sculptor, painter and architect (c.480–430 BC)

Phidias or Pheidias was an Ancient Greek sculptor, painter, and architect, active in the 5th century BC. His Statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Phidias also designed the statues of the goddess Athena on the Athenian Acropolis, namely the Athena Parthenos inside the Parthenon, and the Athena Promachos, a colossal bronze which stood between it and the Propylaea, a monumental gateway that served as the entrance to the Acropolis in Athens. Phidias was the son of Charmides of Athens. The ancients believed that his masters were Hegias and Ageladas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amazonomachy</span> Mythological battles between the ancient Greeks and the Amazons

In Greek mythology, an Amazonomachy is a mythological battle between the ancient Greeks and the Amazons, a nation of all-female warriors. The subject of Amazonomachies was popular in ancient Greek art and Roman art.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temple of Hephaestus</span> Ancient Greek temple in Athens

The Temple of Hephaestus or Hephaisteion, is a well-preserved Greek temple dedicated to Hephaestus; it remains standing largely intact today. It is a Doric peripteral temple, and is located at the north-west side of the Agora of Athens, on top of the Agoraios Kolonos hill. From the 7th century until 1834, it served as the Greek Orthodox church of Saint George Akamates. The building's condition has been maintained due to its history of varied use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Agora of Athens</span> Square of ancient Athens

The ancient Agora of Athens is the best-known example of an ancient Greek agora, located to the northwest of the Acropolis and bounded on the south by the hill of the Areopagus and on the west by the hill known as the Agoraios Kolonos, also called Market Hill. The Agora's initial use was for a commercial, assembly, or residential gathering place.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoa Poikile</span> "Painted Porch" in ancient Athens

The Stoa Poikile or Painted Portico was a Doric stoa erected around 460 BC on the north side of the Ancient Agora of Athens. It was one of the most famous sites in ancient Athens, owing its fame to the paintings and war-booty displayed within it and to its association with ancient Greek philosophy, especially Stoicism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoa Basileios</span> Ancient stoa in Athens

Stoa Basileios, meaning Royal Stoa, was a Doric stoa in the northwestern corner of the Athenian Agora, which was built in the 6th century BC, substantially altered in the 5th century BC, and then carefully preserved until the mid-second century AD. It is among the smallest known Greek stoas, but had great symbolic significance as the seat of the Athenian King Archon, repository of Athens' laws, and site of "the stone" on which incoming magistrates swore their oath of office.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ares Borghese</span> Roman marble statue of the imperial era

The Ares Borghese is a Roman marble statue of the imperial era. It is 2.11 metres high. Though the statue is referred to as Ares, this identification is not entirely certain. This statue possibly preserves some features of an original work in bronze, now lost, of the 5th century BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temple of Ares</span>

The Temple of Ares was a Doric hexastyle peripteral temple dedicated to Ares, located in the northern part of the Ancient Agora of Athens. Fragments from the temple found throughout the Agora enable a full, if tentative, reconstruction of the temple's appearance and sculptural programme. The temple had a large altar to the east and was surrounded by statues. A terrace to the north looked down on the Panathenaic Way. The northwest corner of the temple overlays one of the best-preserved Mycenaean tombs in the Agora, which was in use from ca. 1450-1000 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brauroneion</span> Temple on the Ancient Athenian Acropolis, Greece

The Brauroneion was the sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia on the Athenian Acropolis, located in the southwest corner of the Acropolis plateau, between the Chalkotheke and the Propylaea in Greece. It was originally dedicated during the reign of Peisistratos. Artemis Brauronia, protector of women in pregnancy and childbirth, had her main sanctuary at Brauron, a demos on the east coast of Attica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nike (mythology)</span> Personification of victory in Greek mythology

In Greek mythology and ancient religion, Nike is the goddess who personifies victory in any field including art, music, war, and athletics. She is often portrayed in Greek art as "Winged Victory" in the motion of flight; however, she can also appear without wings as "Wingless Victory" when she is being portrayed as an attribute of another deity such as Athena.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Altar of the Twelve Gods</span> Ancient altar in Athens, Greece

The Altar of the Twelve Gods, was an important altar and sanctuary at Athens, located in the northwest corner of the Classical Agora. The Altar was set up by Pisistratus the Younger, during his archonship, in 522/1 BC. It marked the central point from which distances from Athens were measured and was a place of supplication and refuge.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sanctuary of Aphrodite Urania</span> Temple in the Ancient Agora of Athens

The Sanctuary of Aphrodite Urania was located north-west of the Ancient Agora of Athens and dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite under her epithet Urania. It has been identified with a sanctuary found in this area in the 1980s. This sanctuary initially consisted of a marble altar that was built around 500 BC and was gradually buried as the ground level rose. Another structure, perhaps a fountainhouse, was built to the west ca. 100 BC. In the early 1st century AD, an Ionic tetrastyle prostyle temple closely modelled on the Erechtheion's north porch, that was built to the north of the altar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pausanias' description of Delphi</span>

The tenth book of the work Description of Greece by the traveler Pausanias is dedicated to Phocis; its larger part constitutes a description of the sanctuaries and buildings of Delphi. His work constituted a precious aid to travelers and archaeologists who attempted to identify the monuments revealed by the excavations, although in some cases their identifications were not enough.

The Cave Sanctuaries of the Acropolis of Athens are the natural fissures in the rock of the Acropolis hill that were used as sites of worship for deities of the Panhellenic pantheon in antiquity. Traditionally a sharp distinction has been drawn between the state religion practised on the summit of the Acropolis and the cult practice of the shrines on the lower slopes. Recently, however, interest has burgeoned in the individual religious experience or personal piety in Greek society of which these cult sites may be the expression. The proceeding description follows the order of the shrines from the Klepsydra at the northwest face of the Acropolis clockwise via the Peripatos round to the foot of the Nike bastion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southwest Temple</span>

The Southwest Temple is the modern name for a tetrastyle prostyle Doric temple located in the southwest part of the Ancient Agora of Athens. Fragments from the temple found throughout the Agora enable a full, if tentative, reconstruction of the temple's appearance. These fragments originally belonged to several Hellenistic structures and a fifth-century BC stoa at Thorikos in southeastern Attica, but they were spoliated to build the temple in the Agora in the age of Augustus. It is unknown which god or hero the temple was dedicated to. It was spoliated to build the post-Herulian fortification wall after the Herulian sack of Athens in 267 AD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southeast Temple</span>

The Southeast Temple is the modern name for an Ionic octastyle prostyle temple located in the southeast corner of the Ancient Agora of Athens. Architectural fragments from the temple enable a full, if tentative, reconstruction of its appearance.These fragments originally belonged to the Temple of Athena at Sounion at the southern tip of Attica, but they were spoliated to build the temple in the Agora in the first half of the second century AD. It was thus the last of several "itinerant temples," relocated from the Attic countryside to the Athenian Agora in the Imperial period. It is unknown which god or hero it was dedicated to. It was heavily damaged during the Herulian Sack of Athens in 267 AD and then spoliated to build the post-Herulian fortification wall.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hellenistic Arsenal, Athens</span>

The Hellenistic Arsenal, located on the Kolonos Agoraios in Athens to the west of the Agora and north of the Temple of Hephaestus, is It was one of the largest structures in Athens during the Hellenistic period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Stoa II (Athens)</span>

South Stoa II was a stoa on the south side of the Agora in ancient Athens. It formed the south side of an enclosed complex called the South Square, which was built in the mid-second century BC and may have been intended for use as lawcourts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East Building (Athenian Agora)</span>

The East Building was a rectangular structure at the south end of the Agora in ancient Athens. It was built in the mid-second century BC as the east side and main entrance to an enclosed complex called the South Square, which may have served as a commercial area or as lawcourts. The structure was damaged in the Sullan Sack of 86 BC and used for industrial purposes until the early second century AD when it was rebuilt. It was demolished after the Herulian Sack of 267 AD and used as building material for the Post-Herulian Wall.

References

  1. 1 2 Wycherley 1957, p. 50.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Wycherley 1957, p. 51.
  3. ↑ Thompson 1937, p. 79-81.
  4. 1 2 Thompson 1937, p. 84.
  5. ↑ Thompson 1937, p. 81.
  6. ↑ Thompson 1937, p. 82-83.
  7. ↑ Hedrick 1988, p. 189-190.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Travlos 1971, p. 96.
  9. 1 2 Hedrick 1988, p. 188-189.
  10. 1 2 Thompson in Hedrick 1988 , p. 187
  11. ↑ Hedrick 1988, p. 189.
  12. ↑ Thompson 1937, p. 86-88.
  13. 1 2 3 Hedrick 1988, p. 191.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Stewart 2017, p. 277.
  15. ↑ Wycherley 1957, p. 52.
  16. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 276 n. 5.
  17. ↑ Travlos 1971, p. 98.
  18. ↑ Lawall 2009, p. 391-392.
  19. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 306.
  20. 1 2 3 Stewart 2017, p. 279.
  21. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 308-311.
  22. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 281.
  23. 1 2 3 Stewart 2017, p. 308.
  24. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 309-310.
  25. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 308-309.
  26. 1 2 Stewart 2017, p. 278.
  27. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 310.
  28. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 280-281.
  29. ↑ Pausanias, Description of Greece 1. 3. 4
  30. ↑ Hedrick 1988, p. 196.
  31. ↑ Thompson 1937, p. 99, 109.
  32. ↑ Hedrick 1988, p. 195-196.
  33. ↑ Thompson in Hedrick 1988 , p. 194
  34. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 81.
  35. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 304.
  36. ↑ Thompson 1952, p. 109-110.
  37. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 283-284.
  38. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 281-283, 287.
  39. 1 2 Stewart 2017, p. 288-290.
  40. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 292-294.
  41. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 299-300.
  42. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 297-298, 303.
  43. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 303.
  44. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 299.
  45. ↑ Demosthenes 18.141; Plato, Euthydemus 302c-d
  46. ↑ Wycherley 1957, p. 50-52.
  47. ↑ Hedrick 1988, p. 193-194.
  48. ↑ Wycherley 1957, p. 53.
  49. 1 2 3 Thompson 1937, p. 84-86.
  50. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 307.
  51. ↑ Lawall 2009, pp. 390, 399–401.
  52. ↑ Thompson 1937, p. 106.
  53. ↑ Hedrick 1988, p. 193.
  54. ↑ Stewart 2017, p. 277, 310.
  55. ↑ Shear 1935, p. 353.
  56. 1 2 Thompson 1937, p. 77.
  57. ↑ Shear 1935, p. 354.
  58. ↑ Thompson 1937, p. 79.
  59. ↑ Shear 1935, p. 352-354.

Bibliography

37°58′32″N23°43′20″E / 37.975542°N 23.722099°E / 37.975542; 23.722099

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.