The 1985 Pacific hurricane season is the third-most active Pacific hurricane season on record. It officially started on May 15, 1985, in the eastern Pacific, and on June 1, 1985, in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1985. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean.[1] At the time, the 1985 season was the most active on record in the eastern north Pacific, with 28 tropical cyclones forming. Of those, 24 were named, 13 reached hurricane intensity, and 8 became major hurricanes by attaining Category3 status or higher on the Saffir–Simpson scale. At that time, the 24 named storms was a record; however, this record was broken seven years later in 1992, and was therefore recognized as the second busiest season within the basin, until it was surpassed exactly thirty years later by the 2015 season.
Despite the activity, only one system made landfall in 1985. Hurricane Waldo caused moderate damage in Northwestern Mexico and one death in Kansas. Surf from Hurricanes Pauline and Rick caused minor damage in Hawaii. Hurricane Nele resulted in disruption in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, while Hurricane Ignacio threatened Hawaii, but only ended up producing light rainfall and minimal damage.
This year, 25 tropical cyclones formed in the eastern north Pacific (140°W to North America). Of those systems, three never strengthened beyond the depression stage, while 22 were named. This total was six storms above the 1966–1985 average[3] seven above the 1971–2006 average and nine above the 1949–2006 average of 13.[4] With a total 26 tropical cyclones and 24 named storms,[3][5] this season was the most active on record, breaking the short-lived record held by the 1982 Pacific hurricane season,[6] though the 1992 Pacific hurricane season surpassed this record. This season is now the third-most active, being recently also surpassed by the 2015 Pacific hurricane season, which is now the second-most active overall.[7]
Of the named systems, 10 peaked as tropical storms, 12 as hurricanes, and 8 reached the intensity of major hurricanes by attaining Category3 strength or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The season lasted 170 days, three days longer than the 1984 Pacific hurricane season, but still then days longer than normal. The Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center (EPHC) issued 620 bulletins during the season, 35 more than the previous season.[3] In the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility (140°W to the International Date Line), three tropical cyclones formed. One of those stayed as a tropical depression through its life. One strengthened into a hurricane, and another crossed into the northwestern Pacific before eventually returning to the central Pacific.[8]
Although meteorologists expected a below-normal season, the season got on to a fast start[9] though no storms formed in May. The activity picked up significantly thereafter, with five storms forming in June, including one major hurricane and was the most active month of June on record at the time, although this mark was tied in 2018.[7] By the middle of July, a total of 10 storms had formed[9] with another tropical storm forming off the coast of Central America roughly every 10 days.[10] Throughout July, a record seven named storms formed, although this mark was matched in 2015 and 2016.[7]
Within two more weeks, 13 tropical storms or hurricanes had formed, including 4 major hurricanes. By August 23, 2 more storms had been named. By early September, a total of 17 named storms had developed, 6 of which became hurricanes. Roughly two weeks later, two additional named storms were classified. After a lull in late September and early October, a total of 22 storms had formed by mid-October[7] 21 of which developed in the EPHC's area of responsibility and the list of names was exhausted, forcing the agency to request emergency names.[11]
The cause of the high activity in 1985 is unknown; however, this year continued a trend of above average seasons that began in 1982.[11] The hurricane season took place during a La Niña event,[12] which tends to inhibit Pacific hurricane activity.[13] However, 1985 was during a warm phase of the Pacific decadal oscillation[14] and in the middle of an era where all but the 1988 Pacific hurricane season were near or above average.[13]
Several storms were investigated by hurricane hunter aircraft in 1985;[3] the first was on July 24 during Hurricane Ignacio. On September 10, a flight was made into Rick, where the storms lowest pressure was recorded.[5]Hurricane Sandra was investigated on September 12 on the way from Hawaii, where the hunters were on standby. The final two flights of the season were made on September 21 and 22 into Hurricane Terry while the storm was located off the west coast of the Baja California Peninsula. In addition to observations from Hurricane Hunter aircraft, the National Weather Service satellite station provided the basin with adequate satellite converge. The earlier loss of a GOES-East satellite and the move of a GOES-west satellite further west had little effect on EPHC operations. Enhanced infrared imagery was especially useful in determining cold-core centers.[3]
Even though the early season storms were no threat to land,[15] there were several notable storms during the season, with one writer describing the season as the "worst year ever".[11] The first storm of series of storms to affect Hawaii, Hurricane Ignacio produced 10ft (3.0m) to 15ft (4.6m) waves along south-facing beaches. However, rainfall from Ignacio was light. The second storm to affect the state, Tropical Storm Linda dropped heavy rainfall along the windward slopes of the island chain. In early September, Hurricane Pauline came close enough to require a hurricane watch, but the watch was discontinued when Pauline veered north. However, the storm did produce high waves, with amplitudes of 10ft (3.0m) to 15ft (4.6m) on the eastern side of Puna and Kau. Days later, Hurricane Rick generated high waves; however, the waves were not nearly as high as they were during Pauline. The final storm to affect Hawaii was Hurricane Nele.[5] Due to fears of a repeat from Hurricane Iwa, which struck during the 1982 Pacific hurricane season, a hurricane watch was issued.[16] Although the watch was discontinued when Nele veered west, it later re-curved and struck the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, giving boats a rough night.[5]
The only storm to make landfall during the year was Hurricane Waldo.[3] Waldo destroyed hundreds of homes in Sinaloa and later produced significant rainfall across the Southwestern United States and Great Plains. One person was killed in Kansas.[11][17] In addition, two trop cyclones affected California. The first, Tropical Storm Guillermo, helped firefighters put out fires during mid-July.[18] The second, Tropical Storm Nora, brought light rainfall to the northern portion of the state in late August.[3]
Systems
Tropical Storm Andres
Tropical storm(SSHWS)
Duration
June 5– June 12
Peak intensity
70mph (110km/h) (1-min);
On June 1, an area of thunderstorms south of Acapulco developed. It increased in size and, by June 5, was organized enough to be considered a tropical depression. The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm shortly after thereafter. While the Monthly Weather Review reported that Tropical Storm Andres operationally started out as a tropical depression.[19] the HURDAT database does not give Andres an initial depression stage.[7] Andres headed west, and two days after formation, it reached its maximum intensity of 70mph (110km/h) while located south of the Baja California Peninsula. It then slowly weakened as it moved around a weak upper-level high. It weakened to a depression on June 8. The low stayed a depression as it continued west until it dissipated on June 12 as the cyclone gradually increased in speed.[19]
Hurricane Blanca
Category 3hurricane(SSHWS)
Duration
June 6– June 16
Peak intensity
120mph (195km/h) (1-min);
Blanca originated from a tropical disturbance south of Nicaragua. A tropical depression formed on June6 south of the Mexican coast. Shortly thereafter, it strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Blanca. By June8, the EPHC reported that Blanca had intensified into a hurricane.[3] Blanca fluctuated in intensity for several days, but Blanca did not intensify into a major hurricane, Category 3 or higher, until June13. After reaching its peak intensity that day with winds of 120mph (195km/h) later that day, Hurricane Blanca began to weaken. It held on to hurricane strength until June14, when the agency reported that Hurricane Blanca had fallen to tropical storm intensity. Steadily weakening, Blanca deteriorated into a tropical depression, before dissipating on June 16.[7]
As a precaution, maritime operations were closed in the western states of Colima, Guerrero and Michoacán. Travel on the high seas and along the coast was also restricted.[20]
Tropical Storm Carlos
Tropical storm(SSHWS)
Duration
June 7– June 10
Peak intensity
40mph (65km/h) (1-min);
Carlos originated from a tropical disturbance moving that was moving westward along the northern edge of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The wave developed into the third tropical cyclone of the season at 1800UTC on June7. Due to weak steering currents, the depression moved north and then south, which subsequently resulted in a very small cyclonic loop. By 0000UTC on June10, the depression was upgraded to a Tropical Storm Carlos; at the time, the storm also attained its maximum sustained winds of 40mph (65km/h). However, six hours later, Carlos weakened back to a tropical depression. Thereafter, the storm accelerated somewhat, and quickly merging with the remnants of Tropical Storm Andres at 1800UTC on June10.[3]
Hurricane Dolores
Category 3hurricane(SSHWS)
Duration
June 26– July 5
Peak intensity
115mph (185km/h) (1-min);
A disturbance located south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec moved westward along 10°N between June24 and June25. After interacting with an upper trough, the disturbance strengthened, and by the following day, it developed into the fourth tropical depression of the season at 0600UTC. The depression steadily intensified and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dolores late on June27. Dolores strengthened further while tracking west-northwestward around the southern end of a deep layer ridge. By 1800UTC on June28, the storm had reached hurricane intensity. Thereafter, Dolores continued to steadily deepen, and by 0600UTC on July1, the storm peaked as a 115mph (185km/h) Category3 hurricane. However, due to colder sea surface temperatures and increasing vertical wind shear, Dolores quickly weakened, and by early on July2, it was downgraded to a tropical storm. Later that day, the storm further weakened to a tropical depression. At around 1800UTC on July5, Dolores dissipated.[3]
Tropical Storm Enrique
Tropical storm(SSHWS)
Duration
June 27– July 5
Peak intensity
40mph (65km/h) (1-min);
Enrique began as a tropical disturbance in the ITCZ[3] west of the larger and very intense Hurricane Dolores.[5] Moving west over 81°F (27°C) water, the system was designated as a tropical depression on June27. Shortly thereafter, it intensified Tropical Storm Enrique. Turning west-northwest, the storm moved over slightly warmer water. Despite this, Enrique never strengthened beyond 40mph (65km/h) winds, and entered the CPHC's warming responsibility on July1. Turning west beneath a ridge,[3] Enrique rapidly weakened to tropical depression status.[7] On July4, the shallow and weak system turned slightly south of west. Enrique had dissipated by July5. Despite its weak intensity, moisture carried by the system caused a few localized heavy showers on the windward side of the Big Island of Hawaii on July 5 and over the Kona slopes throughout the night hours of July 5 and 6.[5]
Tropical Storm Fefa
Tropical storm(SSHWS)
Duration
July 2– July 6
Peak intensity
70mph (110km/h) (1-min);
A tropical disturbance moved westward across the warm sea surface temperatures of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on July1. At 1200UTC on the following day, the disturbance was classified as Tropical Depression Six, while centered about 215 miles (346km) south of Acapulco. Early on July3, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fefa, while moving parallel to the Pacific coast of Mexico. Fefa approached hurricane status and peaked as a 70mph (110km/h) tropical storm at 0000UTC on July4. However, thereafter, the storm began weakening as a short-wave trough in the westerlies moved into northern Mexico, which caused increased wind shear on Tropical Storm Fefa. Additionally, colder sea surface temperatures over the west coast of the Baja California Peninsula further weakened Fefa. By 1800UTC on July6, Fefa dissipated. At the time of dissipation, the low while located about 170 miles (270km) east of La Paz.[3]
Tropical Storm Guillermo
Tropical storm(SSHWS)
Duration
July 7– July 12
Peak intensity
60mph (95km/h) (1-min);
The origins of Guillermo were from a tropical disturbance that formed within 300mi (485km) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Moving rapidly west-northwest over moderately warm water, the disturbance was classified as a tropical depression. At this time, the depression was centered 270mi (435km) south of Acapulco on July7. Roughly 24 hours later, the storm intensified slightly, enough to warrant an upgraded into Tropical Storm Guillermo. Tropical Storm Guillermo moved northwest at almost 15mph (30km/h) around the southwest side of a high pressure area over Central Mexico. Passing 50mi (80km) north of Socorro Island, Guillermo attained its maximum intensity of 60mph (95km/h) during the evening of July9.[3]
Shortly after its peak, Guillermo began to weaken rapidly due to a combination of strong wind shear and 77°F (25°C) waters. By 1800UTC, most of the thunderstorm activity had dissipated and only a weak low-pressure area remained. Based on this, Guillermo was downgraded into a tropical depression. Finally, Guillermo turned west and ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone on July12.[3] The remnants of the storm brought light rainfall to the mountains and valleys of California, helping re-fill dry reservoirs and put out large fires.[18]
Tropical Storm Hilda
Tropical storm(SSHWS)
Duration
July 18– July 20
Peak intensity
40mph (65km/h) (1-min);
Tropical Depression Nine developed at 0000UTC on July18. Initially, the depression tracked northward due to weak southerly flow associated with an upper-level high centered near the southern tip of Baja California Sur. By 0000UTC on July19, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Hilda; the storm reached its maximum sustained winds of 40mph (65km/h) at this time. Thereafter, Hilda turned westward. Due to sea surface temperatures of only 75°F (24°C), Hilda began to weaken and it dissipated on 1200UTC July20.[3]
Hurricane Jimena
Category 4hurricane(SSHWS)
Duration
July 20– July 29
Peak intensity
130mph (215km/h) (1-min);
Jimena originated from a tropical wave that moved across Central America and southern Mexico on July18 and19. Located along the northern edge of the ITCZ, a tropical depression formed by July 20. Initially moving west, the depression turned west-northwest and was upgraded into Tropical Storm Jimena early on July21. Jimena attained hurricane intensity two days later. Hurricane Jimena remained a Category1 hurricane for roughly another day, only to undergo a burst of intensification[7] despite being above marginally warm ocean temperatures. The storm attained peak wind speed of 130mph (210km/h) while located roughly 600mi (965km) southwest of Cabo San Lucas.[3]
After maintaining peak intensity for 12hours, Jimena turned northwest, and respectively began a slow decline. Jimena fell below hurricane status on 1800UTC July26. Tropical Storm Jimena was downgraded into a tropical depression late on July27. Jimena was no longer considered a tropical cyclone by July29, as its center had dissipated over fairly cold water.[3]
A tropical depression was spotted early on July21 while located 1,623mi (2,612km) southwest of San Diego. Situated over warm waters, the depression attained tropical storm intensity a couple hours later.[3] Intensifying further west than normal,[5] Ignacio reached winds of 70mph (110km/h) on July22, roughly 24hours after formation, and subsequently entered the CPHC's warning zone.[3] A Hurricane Hunter aircraft investigated Ignacio at daybreak on July 22, and found that Ignacio had developed a well-defined eye and winds of 85mph (165km/h). Based on this, the CPHC upgraded Ignacio to hurricane status. Continuing to rapidly intensify, the hurricane attained major hurricane status, Category 3 or higher on the SSHS, later that day. Subsequently, another Hurricane Hunter aircraft discovered that Hurricane Ignacio had reached its peak wind speed of 130mph (215km/h) and an estimated central pressure of 960mbar (28inHg).[5] Operationally, Ignacio was believed to have peaked as a Category5 hurricane.[21]
The hurricane held peak intensity for several hours, however, an upper trough northwest of the Hawaiian Islands was gradually approaching Ignacio. Subsequently, the environment was rapidly becoming less conductive as the trough induced increased southwesterly wind shear and introduced colder and drier air into Ignacio's circulation. By 1800 UTC July 24, Ignacio was no longer a major hurricane as satellite imagery suggested that the eye had become irregular and soon disappeared. Air Force aircraft confirmed the weakening trend despite being located in an area where other hurricanes such as Hurricane Dot in 1959 and Hurricane Fico in 1978 maintained their intensity around the same time of the year. The hurricane resumed its westerly course, and Hurricane Ignacio was downgraded a Category 1 hurricane at 1800 UTC on July 25, and a tropical storm the next day. While passing south of Hawaii, Ignacio dropped to tropical depression status early on July 27, and dissipated shortly after that.[5]
Because of a strong trough was located northwest of Ignacio, many tropical cyclone forecast models predicted a more northerly track than what ultimately occurred.[5] On July24, a high surf advisory was issued for east-facing shores of Hawaii;[22] subsequently, a hurricane watch was issued the next day for the Big Island.[5] Roughly 24hours after the watch was issued, it was cancelled,[5] though a small craft advisory remained in effect for the Hawaiian Islands.[23] Ignacio resulted in 10ft (3.0m) to 15ft (4.6m) surf, peaking midday on July25. Rainfall from the storm was generally light[5] though many secondary roads that lead to the beaches were closed.[23][24]
Tropical Storm Kevin
Tropical storm(SSHWS)
Duration
July 29– August 6
Peak intensity
65mph (100km/h) (1-min);
A tropical wave crossed the Gulf of Tehuantepec on July27 and developed into a tropical depression at 0000UTC on July29. While tracking west-northwestward between 7 and 11mph (11 and 18km/h), the depression slowly intensified, and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Kevin at 1800UTC on July31. Crossing marginally warm sea surface temperatures, Kevin maintained tropical storm intensity while tracking westward. However, by August5, vertical wind shear began increasing, which was generated by an upper-level trough. As a result, Kevin weakened to a tropical depression at 0600UTC on August6 and dissipated 12hours later.[3]
Tropical Storm Linda
Tropical storm(SSHWS)
Duration
July 29– August 9
Peak intensity
50mph (85km/h) (1-min);
A tropical wave formed on July28 over fairly warm water. Moving west-northwest, the system was declared a tropical depression far from land the next day. It became Tropical Storm Linda later on July29. A relatively weak cyclone, Linda peaked as a moderate tropical storm at 1200UTC on July31. Shortly after its peak, Tropical Storm Linda began to weaken over cooler waters and increased wind shear. Linda began to weaken and was downgraded into a tropical depression on August2. Two days later, it passed into the CPHC's area of responsibility.[3]
Upon entering the warning zone, the tropical depression was moving slowly toward the northwest and within six hours, Tropical Depression Linda began to re-intensify. On August 4, the storm had regained tropical storm status. Subsequently, Linda reaches its secondary peak with winds of 45mph (75km/h). Linda remained a tropical storm for about 24 hours before it started to weaken again on August5. It was downgraded to a tropical depression early the next day. Meanwhile, Linda turned west under the influence of northerly trade winds. The depression came within 150mi (240km) of South Point, Hawaii, before dissipating early on August9. Some heavy showers associated with the outer rainband's of the low fell on the windward slopes of the Big Island of Hawaii and Maui, where rainfall totals of 5–10in (130–250mm) were recorded.[5]
Hurricane Marty
Category 1hurricane(SSHWS)
Duration
August 6– August 13
Peak intensity
75mph (120km/h) (1-min);
A tropical disturbance crossed the coast of El Salvador and entered the Pacific Ocean on August3. After moving westward over sea surface temperatures of 84°F (29°C), the disturbance developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen at 1800UTC on August6, while centered about 460mi (740km) southwest of Acapulco. While tracking west-northwestward at about 13mph (21km/h), the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Marty at 1200UTC August7. Further strengthening occurred and Marty became a hurricane on 0000UTC August9. However, after 18hours as a hurricane, Marty weakened back to a tropical storm as it began tracking across colder sea surface temperatures. Early on August13, Marty weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated later that day at 1800UTC.[3]
Tropical Storm Nora
Tropical storm(SSHWS)
Duration
August 19– August 23
Peak intensity
45mph (75km/h) (1-min);
A tropical disturbance detached from the ITCZ on August18. While tracking across an area of sea surface temperatures of 81°F (27°C), the disturbance slowly intensified and the EPHC reported that the system had developed tropical depression at 1800UTC on August19. Initially, the depression remained weak, though by 1200UTC on August21, it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Nora. Thereafter, Nora turned northwestward toward a deep-layer low-pressure area offshore of California. During this time, the storm began to weaken due to a decrease in sea surface temperatures. Nora weakened back to a tropical depression on August22. Nora began to dissipate at 1200UTC August23 over 73°F (23°C) waters. Meanwhile, low-level clouds began to enter the storm's circulation. The high-level outflow associated with the storm moved northward and then eastward, resulting in light rainfall in Northern California on August22 and23.[3]
Hurricane Olaf
Category 1hurricane(SSHWS)
Duration
August 22– August 31
Peak intensity
85mph (140km/h) (1-min);
Olaf originated from a disturbed south of Acapulco on August21 over extremely warm waters. Moving slowly west, the EPHC reported that a tropical depression formed on August22. The depression attained tropical storm status the next day, and subsequently began to rapidly intensify. While turning northwest, Olaf became a hurricane 460mi (740km) south-southwest of La Paz. It headed west-northwest, and reached its peak intensity as a moderate Category 1 hurricane late on August26, with winds of 85mph (140km/h).[3]
Hurricane Olaf then moved slowing towards the west beneath a ridge and into progressively cooler waters. Olaf weakened into a tropical storm on August28, and then degenerated into a tropical depression the next afternoon. Tropical Depression Olaf suddenly turned north towards an upper-level through off the U.S. West Coast. However, hostile conditions caused the system to cease to exist as a tropical cyclone early on August31 several hundred miles west-southwest of San Diego, California.[3]
Hurricane Pauline
Category 1hurricane(SSHWS)
Duration
August 27– September 9
Peak intensity
85mph (140km/h) (1-min);
A small, westward moving area of thunderstorm activity become the 17th cyclone of the season. Turning southwest between an upper-level high over Baja California and a low near the southern coast of Mexico, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Pauline. Over the next couple of day, the cyclone turned west, and then west-northwest. Slowly strengthening despite underneath warm waters, Pauline attained hurricane intensity on September7. Subsequently, Pauline turned towards the south. After peaking in intensity as a moderate Category1 hurricane, the system crossed into the CPHC's area of responsibility.[3]
It remained at hurricane intensity for three days. Shortly thereafter, Pauline began to weaken and turn northwest away from Hawaii. Due to interaction with trough, the hurricane veered north into an environment of strong wind shear. The result was rapid weakening; Hurricane Pauline was downgraded to a tropical storm late on September8 and a tropical depression well north of the islands the next day. Pauline ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone by the evening hours of September9. However, the remnants of Pauline moved northwest into an area of low pressure of the Gulf of Alaska. A recognizable circulation in the low level flow was visible for several days as it drifted westward far to the north of the Hawaiian Islands.[5]
Hurricane Pauline threatened the islands enough to prompt the issuance of a hurricane watch on September6. Around this time, officials drew plans to evacuate coastal residents[25] and 100,000people were asked to make emergency preparations.[26] Instead, Pauline turned away from the islands and the watch was cancelled. However, Pauline did cause high surf along the east facing shores of all the Islands. up to 10–15ft (3.0–4.6m) surf was measured along the Big Island, Puna, and Kau coastlines. As a result, some roads were temporarily closed due to washed debris.[5]
The origins of Skip were from a disturbance that passed well south of Hawaii in late August. The CPHC monitored the disturbance for several days prior to classifying it as Tropical Depression Two‑C on August30. The system crossed the International Date Line the next day, at which time the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) took over monitoring responsibilities. The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm and assigned the name Skip with the first JTWC advisory, at 06:00UTC on August31. Post season reanalysis found that Skip had attained tropical storm strength six hours earlier. Initially moving west, the depression was upgraded a typhoon at 12:00UTC September1. A Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough then steered tip to the north and later towards the northeast. The typhoon briefly threatened Wake Island during this time. Skip subsequently recrossed the Date Line as it was rapidly weakening and gaining extratropical features; this extratropical transition was completed by 21:00UTC on September7. Three hours later, the CPHC issued the final advisory on the storm.[8][27]
In late August, a tropical wave began meandering westward south of Salina Cruz. Initially disorganized due to strong wind shear counteracting the warm waters that it was in, satellite imagery on August 31 indicated that the thunderstorm activity had increased in the vicinity of the wave on. Further development occurred, and on September 1, the (EPHC) upgraded the low into Tropical Depression Eighteen, with it strengthening into Tropical Storm Rick the next day.[3] Initially expected to turn north and approach the Baja California Peninsula,[28] the system turned southwest due to a ridge, later resuming its westerly course on September4. Despite being situated over warm waters and in a low wind shear environment, further intensification was initially slow to occur as Rick was 800mi (1,285km) east of Pauline, with it not attaining hurricane status until September6.[3]
After becoming a hurricane, Rick began to intensify more rapidly,[3] becoming a Category 2 hurricane 30hours later. By 1200UTC on September8, Rick reached Category 3 status,[7],[3] later developing a large[5] and well-defined eye.[3] Several hours later, the storm's forecast responsibility was handed over to the CPHC,[3] where Rick reached its peak intensity of 145mph (233km/h),[7] with gusts up to 170mph (270km/h).[29] Moved northwest, Rick soon encountered increased southwesterly shear, causing it to weaken. On September10, Rick's eye started to become ragged and cloud-filled, when it was downgraded into a Category 3 hurricane. A dropsonde released into the eye of Hurricane Rick showed a central pressure of 951mbar (951.00hPa; 28.08inHg). Recurving away from Hawaii, the system began to rapidly deteriorate and was reduced to a Category1 hurricane during the evening hours of September 10. The next day, Rick was downgraded into a tropical storm east of Hilo, later merging with the same trough that absorbed Pauline. Despite this, a weak low-level circulation persisted for several more days.[5]
Following a path similar to the one Pauline made a few days earlier, the powerful hurricane moved northwest. A weakening trend commenced on September10; Hurricane Rick began to rapidly deteriorate. On September11, Tropical Storm Rick merged with the same trough though weak low-level circulation persisted for several more days.[5] Early forecasts noted uncertainty in the storm's path and meteorologists noted the potential to be more of a threat to Hawaii than Pauline.[30] The hurricane approached the islands, coming close enough to require a high surf advisory.[31] Even though Hurricane Rick turned north sooner than Pauline, the surf did rise somewhat.[3]
During the late evening of September4, a large intense area of thunderstorm activity formed near the Guatemala–El Salvador coast. The thunderstorm developed a circulation about 24 hours later, and was thus upgraded into a tropical depression a few hundred miles south of the Mexican coast. Turning west-northwest over 84°F (29°C) waters, the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Sandra early on September7. By 0600UTC September8, winds had increased to75mph (120km/h), and Sandra was upgraded into a hurricane. Sandra turned west,[3] and quickly intensified, reaching Category 3 status later that day.[7] On 0000UTC September9, Sandra peaked in intensity with winds of 125mph (200km/h).[3]
After moving towards the west for an additional 18 hours, it subsequently began a sharp turn northwest and later west-northwest due to an intensifying trough off the west coast of Baja California.[3] Meanwhile, Sandra slowly weakened.[7] At 1746UTC September12, a Hurricane Hunter aircraft intersected Hurricane Sandra after being on standby in Hawaii. The aircraft penetrated Sandra twice, reaching the 700mbar (700.00hPa; 20.67inHg) level. It also measured surface winds of 75mph (120km/h) and a surface pressure of 972mbar (972.00hPa; 28.70inHg). The eye was reportedly open to the west with low-level banding, and the eye was 37mi (60km) in diameter.[3]
Shortly after the flight, the cyclone then began to turn to the west and weaken further over 78°F (26°C) waters.[3] Sandra was downgraded into a tropical storm the next day; however, the storm briefly regained minimal hurricane status.[7] On 1800UTC September14, Sandra weakened back into a tropical storm roughly 600mi (970km) west of the Baja California Peninsula. Now over 77°F (25°C) sea surface temperatures,[3] Sandra weakened into a tropical depression on September15[7] and dissipated two days later.[3]
Hurricane Terry
Category 3hurricane(SSHWS)
Duration
September 15– September 24
Peak intensity
115mph (185km/h) (1-min);
A tropical wave moved through Nicaragua on September14. Moving rapidly west over 86°F (30°C) warms, a circulation became evident and tropical depression developed at 1800UTC September15, the twentieth of the season. The system turned northwest; subsequently, the depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Terry 24hours after formation approximately 300mi (480km) south of Acapulco. Early on September17, Terry attained hurricane status.[3] Terry quickly reached Category2 status and briefly reached Category3 intensity,[7] peaking with winds of 115mph (185km/h) on September21 over 300mi (485km) south of Cabo San Lucas.[3]
Shortly after its peak, a cold trough moved southward into Baja California Norte. This steered Hurricane Terry northward into cooler waters. A U.S. Air Force weather reconnaissance aircraft investigated the weakening Terry on 1800UTC September21 and22 while the storm was west-southwest of the peninsula. Two penetrations were made in both flights. The second flight suggested that the hurricane had a poorly defined eye. A combination of cooler water and increased wind shear took its toll on Terry. The system weakened into a tropical storm at 0600UTC September23 due west of the Baja California Peninsula, and a tropical depression early the following day. By 1800UTC, Terry dissipated while its center dissipated 500mi (800km) west-southwest of San Diego.[3] The hurricane at one point in time was predicted to make landfall in central Baja California and threaten San Diego;[32] however, this did not occur.[3]
Tropical Storm Vivian
Tropical storm(SSHWS)
Duration
September 18– September 21
Peak intensity
40mph (65km/h) (1-min);
A disturbance emerged from the northern ITCZ on September17. By 0600UTC on the following day, it developed into a tropical depression. Initially, the depression tracked northwestward in response to a strong upper-level trough centered over northern Baja California. After crossing an area of sea surface temperatures in excess of 82°F (28°C), the depression was able to strengthen into Tropical Storm Vivian at 0000UTC on September20. Under the influence of Hurricane Terry and an upper-level high pressure, Vivian turned west, southwest, and eventually southward. While tracking to the south, the storm re-entered the ITCZ, which caused Vivian to weaken and become indistinguishable. Vivian was downgraded to a tropical depression on September21, shortly before dissipating on 1800UTC on that same day.[3]
Tropical Depression Twenty-Three formed from a disturbance on October7. In a favorable environment over warm waters, It rapidly intensified, reaching tropical storm intensity the same day it formed. Tropical Storm Waldo then began to turn to the north and while located 130mi (210km) south of Baja California Sur, Waldo was upgraded into a Category1 hurricane. A trough started re-curving Waldo towards the Mexican coast. Shortly after peaking as a Category2 hurricane, Waldo made landfall southwest of Culiacán. Waldo rapidly dissipated over land[3] and eventually merged with a cold front.[33]
Prior to the arrival of Waldo, the Mexican Army was put on standby in the event the Fuerte River flooded.[34] While no deaths or injuries were reported,[35] much farmland and 600houses were destroyed.[3] The Juarez River bursts its banks, flooding at least eight neighborhoods in Culiacán. Telephone service in Los Mochis, Guarmuchil, and Guasave was cut when a communications tower was blown over.[34] A total of 10,000people were left homeless across the state.[36]
In combination with a cold front, Waldo contributed to major flooding in Kansas that forced many rivers and creeks to overflow their banks. One indirect death was reported and roughly 15people were evacuated from their homes in one town. In Kansas City, Waldo produced 1ft (30cm) of water on roads, but none of the nearby homes received extensive damage. The Sedgwick County, the county fire department freed 35trapped people from rising flood waters.[17] Flash floods affected the southern one–third of New Mexico from rainfall associated from Waldo. Damage was estimated between $100,000–$1million (1985USD), mostly to crops, roads, and buildings.[37] In all, Waldo's rain was comparable to Atlantic Hurricane Gloria.[38]
The origins of Nele were from a tropical disturbance to the south-southeast of Hawaii on October20. The tropical disturbance developed into Tropical Depression Three-C while located south-southeast of Hawaii on October23. Although difficult to observe on satellite imagery, the CPHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Nele early on October24. Continuing to intensify, the storm tracked northwestward, following a similar path to Hurricane Iwa in 1982 and Hurricane Nina in 1957. On October25, Nele attained hurricane strength as it turned to the north. On October26 it attained peak winds of 90mph (145km/h). It entered an area of weaker steering currents due to a nearby trough.[5] This caused concern for the CPHC, who noted that a continued path would result in the hurricane moving through the island chain.[39] Instead, Nele turned to the northwest at a steady pace and instead moved through the Hawaiian Leeward Islands, passing about 100mi (160km) west of French Frigate Shoals and very near Tern Island. Around that time, reconnaissance aircraft measured winds of 85mph (140km/h) and a pressure of 982mbar (982.00hPa; 29.00inHg). After passing through the island chain, the storm finally weakened and accelerated towards the north. Nele re-curved to the northeast, transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on October 30.[5]
Due to fears of a repeat of Hurricane Iwa, a hurricane watch was issued for Hawaii.[5][16] Officials moved beach equipment away from the beach in preparation. About 24 hours after the hurricane watch was issued, it was dropped as Nele moved away from the islands, alongside the cancellation of a high surf advisory.[40] The hurricane produced 10ft (3.0m) waves along south-facing beaches.[41] Upon passing through the Leeward Islands, a weather station on Tern Island recorded winds of 34mph (55km/h) with gusts of 50mph (80km/h), along with a pressure of 1,000mbar (1,000.00hPa; 29.53inHg). Many fishing boats spent a tough night at French Frigate Shoals due to high waves and seas. One vessel was partially disabled due to a broken rudder and required assistance from the U.S. Coast Guard. Another vessel reported winds of hurricane-force and 30ft (9.1m) to 40ft (12m). Other fishing vessels near Maro Reef and Laysan Island had an easier time as they were in the weaker left of the hurricane.[5]
Hurricane Xina
Category 3hurricane(SSHWS)
Duration
October 25– November 5
Peak intensity
115mph (185km/h) (1-min);
Tropical Depression Twenty-Four developed at 0600UTC on October25, in the southwest quadrant of a quasi-stationary deep-layer mean anticyclone. The depression moved generally westward and slowly strengthened, becoming Tropical Storm Xina about 72hours after becoming a tropical cyclone. Thereafter, the storm curved northwestward and gradually intensified, and by late on October28, it was upgraded to a hurricane. Xina then rapidly deepened, peaking as a 115mph (185km/h) Category3 hurricane at 1800UTC on October29. However, due to decreasing sea surface temperatures, Xina almost immediately began to weaken.[3]
Shortly thereafter, the storm curved eastward, later followed by a south-southwestward turned early on October31. Later that day, Xina was downgraded to a tropical storm. At around 0600UTC on November1, the storm had further weakened to a tropical depression.[3] Xina briefly re-strengthened to a tropical storm at 0600UTC on November2, though it quickly weakened back to a tropical depression about six hours later.[7] After weakening back to a tropical depression, the circulation of Xina became very disorganized and difficult to locate. Early on November4, the depression curved southwestward, and by 0600UTC on November5, Xina had dissipated.[3]
Tropical depressions
Of the four tropical cyclones that did not reach tropical storm strength, the first was a weak disturbance that began to develop in the northern Intertropical Convergence Zone on July10. After convection increased and a circulation formed, the system was upgraded to Tropical Depression Eight at 1800UTC on July11. However, deep convection quickly began to diminish, and by early on the following day, the depression dissipated.[3]
Tropical Depression Twenty-Five-E well away from land
The only tropical depression to develop in the CPHC's area of responsibility developed from a disturbance embedded in the trade wind flow south of the Hawaiian Islands that was about 35mi (56km) south of the Hawaiian Islands. A tropical depression was declared on August 20 as the system appeared to be intensifying while moving rapidly west-northwest. However, increased wind shear from a trough, an elongated area of low pressure, took toll on the storm and it weakened on August 21 near the Johnston Atoll. Due to the lack of a well-defined atmospheric circulation, the storm ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone two days after formation.[5]
An area of convection within the ITCZ developed into Tropical Depression Twenty-Two at 0000UTC on October1. However, the depression never separated from the ITCZ. Despite sea surface temperatures in excess of 82°F (28°C), the depression did not strengthen, and on the following day, the center became ill-defined and difficult to locate on satellite imagery. Convection began decreasing, and as a result, the depression is estimated to have dissipated at 1800UTC on October2. Over a month later, a weak disturbance located about 345mi (555km) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Sur developed a circulation; the system was promptly classified as Tropical Depression Twenty-Five at 0600UTC on November21. The depression drifted slowly southward at 3mph (4.8km/h), shortly before curving west-southwestward. Thereafter, the depression turned north-northwestward and dissipated later on November21.[3]
The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the North Pacific Ocean east of 140°W in 1985.[42] This is the same list used for the 1979 season,[43] though names beginning with "X", "Y", and "Z" were added during season due to the high level of cyclogenesis.[44] Storms were named Kevin, Linda, Marty, Nora, Olaf, Rick, Sandra, Terry, Vivian, Waldo, and Xina for the first time in 1985. The name Pauline was previously used on the old four-year lists.[45] No names were retired from this list following the season, and it was used again for the 1991 season, though the name Dolores would be spelled as "Delores".[46]
For storms that form in the North Pacific from 140°W to the International Date Line, the names come from a series of four rotating lists. Names are used one after the other without regard to year, and when the bottom of one list is reached, the next named storm receives the name at the top of the next list.[42] One named storm formed within the region in 1985. Named storms in the table above that crossed into the area during the year are noted (*).[5]
Nele
Additionally, Skip formed in the central Pacific and soon thereafter crossed the International Date Line into the western Pacific where it was named. It subsequently re‑entered the central Pacific several days later.[47]
Season effects
This is a table of all of the tropical cyclones that formed in the 1985 Pacific hurricane season. It includes their name, duration, peak classification and intensities, areas affected, damage, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 1985 USD.
The 2003 Pacific hurricane season was the first season to feature no major hurricanes since 1977. The season officially began on May 15, 2003 in the Eastern North Pacific, and on June 1 in the Central ; both ended on November 30. These dates, adopted by convention, historically describe the period in each year when most tropical cyclogenesis occurs in these regions of the Pacific. The season featured 16 tropical storms, 7 of which intensified into hurricanes, which was then considered an average season. Damage across the basin reached US$129 million, and 23 people were killed by the storms.
The 1999 Pacific hurricane season was one of the least active Pacific hurricane seasons on record. The season officially began on May 15 in the Eastern Pacific, and on June 1 in the Central Pacific; in both basins, it ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. The first tropical cyclone of the season, Hurricane Adrian, developed on June 18, while the final storm of the season, Tropical Storm Irwin, dissipated on October 11. No storms developed in the Central Pacific during the season. However, two storms from the Eastern Pacific, Dora and Eugene, entered the basin, with the former entering as a hurricane and becoming the second farthest travelling Pacific hurricane on record.
The 1997 Pacific hurricane season was a very active hurricane season. With hundreds of deaths and hundreds of millions of dollars in damage, this was one of the deadliest and costliest Pacific hurricane seasons on record. This was due to the exceptionally strong 1997–98 El Niño event. The season officially started on May 15, in the eastern Pacific, and on June 1, in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when almost all tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean.
The 1992 Pacific hurricane season is the most active Pacific hurricane season on record, featuring 27 named storms. The season also produced the second-highest ACE value on record in the basin, only surpassed by the 2018 season. The 1992 season officially started on May 15 in the eastern Pacific, and on June 1 in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. However, tropical cyclogenesis is possible at any time of the year, as demonstrated by the development of Hurricane Ekeka on January 28, and Tropical Storm Hali two months later.
The 1987 Pacific hurricane season was the last year in which the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center was the primary warning center for tropical cyclones in the eastern Pacific Ocean. The season officially started May 15, 1987, in the eastern Pacific, and June 1, 1987, in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1987. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when the vast majority of tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean.
The 1986 Pacific hurricane season featured several tropical cyclones that contributed to significant flooding to the Central United States. The hurricane season officially started May 15, 1986, in the eastern Pacific, and June 1, 1986 in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1986 in both regions. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. A total of 17 named storms and 9 hurricanes developed during the season; this is slightly above the averages of 15 named storms and 8 hurricanes, respectively. In addition, 26 tropical depressions formed in the eastern Pacific during 1986, which, at the time, was the second most ever recorded; only the 1982 Pacific hurricane season saw a higher total.
The 1983 Pacific hurricane season was the longest season ever recorded at that time. It was a very active Pacific hurricane season. The season started on May 15, 1983 in the eastern Pacific, and on June 1, 1983 in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1983. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. During the 1983 season, there were 20 named storms, which was slightly less than the previous season. Furthermore, twelve of those storms became hurricanes. And eight of the storms reached major hurricane status, or Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS). The decaying 1982–83 El Niño event likely contributed to this level of activity. That same El Niño influenced a very quiet Atlantic hurricane season.
The 1981 Pacific hurricane season was a slightly below average Pacific hurricane season. The season officially started on May 15 in the eastern Pacific basin and June 1 in the central Pacific basin. Both basins' seasons ended on November 30; these dates conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. The first tropical cyclone of the season was designated on May 30, and the final storm of the season, Hurricane Otis, dissipated on October 30. The season produced fifteen named storms and a total of eight hurricanes, which was near normal. However, the total of one major hurricane was below the average of three.
The 1980 Pacific hurricane season officially started May 15, 1980, in the eastern Pacific and June 1, 1980, in the central Pacific, lasting until November 30, 1980. These dates conventionally delimit each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern and central Pacific Ocean. This season was relatively uneventful; since no tropical cyclones made landfall, there were no reports of casualties or damage.
The 1979 Pacific hurricane season was an inactive North Pacific hurricane season, featuring 10 named storms, 6 hurricanes, and 4 major hurricanes. All tropical cyclone activity this season was confined to the Eastern Pacific, east of 140°W. For the first time since 1977, no tropical cyclones formed in, or entered into the Central Pacific, between 140°W and the International Date Line.
The 1976 Pacific hurricane season was a very deadly and costly season. Hurricanes Kathleen, Liza, and Madeline were the most notable storms this year. Hurricane Kathleen caused death and destruction in California and Arizona due to flooding. Hurricane Liza was the deadliest storm of the season when it killed over 600 people in Mexico. Hurricane Madeline is notable for being one of the most intense Pacific hurricanes at landfall.
The 1975 Pacific hurricane season officially started May 15, 1975, in the eastern Pacific, and June 1, 1975, in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1975. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeast Pacific Ocean.
The 1978 Pacific hurricane season was the first Pacific hurricane season to use both masculine and feminine names for tropical cyclones. It also began the modern practice of utilizing naming lists every six years. Despite lacking an El Niño, a common driver of enhanced activity in the East and Central Pacific basins, the 1978 season was active. It featured 19 named storms, 14 hurricanes, and 7 major hurricanes, the latter of which are Category 3 or stronger cyclones on the Saffir–Simpson scale. Within the confines of the Central Pacific basin, located between the International Date Line and 140°W, 13 tropical cyclones or their remnants were observed by forecasters at the Central Pacific Hurricane Center, a record number of occurrences at the time. Seasonal activity began on May 30 and ended on October 21, within the limits of a traditional hurricane season which begins on May 15 in the East Pacific and June 1 in the Central Pacific. The season ends on November 30 in both basins. These dates conventionally delimit the period during each year when most tropical cyclones form.
The 1968 Pacific hurricane season ties the record for having the most active August in terms of tropical storms. It officially started on May 15, 1968, in the eastern Pacific and June 1 in the central Pacific and lasted until November 30, 1968. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean.
Hurricane Emilia was, at the time, the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the Central Pacific Ocean, and the second of such to be classified as a Category 5 hurricane – the highest rating on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. However, hurricanes Gilma later that year, Ioke in 2006, and Walaka in 2018 later reached lower barometric pressures in the Central Pacific. In addition, Emilia was the first Category 5 Pacific hurricane since Hurricane Ava in 1973. The fifth named storm and the first of three Category 5 hurricanes of the 1994 hurricane season, Emilia developed from an area of low pressure southeast of Hawaii on July 16. Tracking westward, the initial tropical depression intensified into a tropical storm several hours after tropical cyclogenesis. Subsequently, Emilia entered the Central Pacific Ocean and moved into the area of responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC).
The 2013 Pacific hurricane season was an above average Pacific hurricane season with 21 tropical cyclones forming. Of these, 20 became named storms – 18 in the Eastern Pacific basin, and 2 in the Central Pacific basin. Of the 18 named storms in the east, 9 became hurricanes, with one, Raymond, becoming the season's only major hurricane. In the central, neither named storm became a hurricane. It was also a below-normal season in terms of Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE), as many of its systems were weak and short-lived. The season officially began on May 15 in the Eastern Pacific and started on June 1 in the Central Pacific; both ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical development occurs in these North Pacific basins. The first cyclone, Tropical Storm Alvin, formed on May 15, and the last, Tropical Storm Sonia, dissipated on November 4. It was below average only Category 3 storm was since 1981.
The 2014 Pacific hurricane season was one of the busiest and costliest Pacific hurricane seasons since the keeping of reliable records began in 1949. The season officially started on May 15 in the East Pacific Ocean, and on June 1 in the Central Pacific; they both ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in these regions of the Pacific.
The 2015 Pacific hurricane season is the second-most active Pacific hurricane season on record, with 26 named storms, only behind the 1992 season. A record-tying 16 of those storms became hurricanes, and a record 11 storms further intensified into major hurricanes throughout the season. The Central Pacific, the portion of the Northeast Pacific Ocean between the International Date Line and the 140th meridian west, had its most active year on record, with 16 tropical cyclones forming in or entering the basin. Moreover, the season was the third-most active season in terms of accumulated cyclone energy, amassing a total of 290 units. The season officially started on May 15 in the Eastern Pacific and on June 1 in the Central Pacific; they both ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Northeast Pacific basin. However, the formation of tropical cyclones is possible at any time of the year. This was shown when a tropical depression formed on December 31. The above-average activity during the season was attributed in part to the very strong 2014–2016 El Niño event.
The 2019 Pacific hurricane season was an above average season which produced nineteen named storms, most of which were rather weak and short-lived. Only seven hurricanes formed, the fewest since 2010. The season officially began on May 15 in the East Pacific Ocean, and on June 1 in the Central Pacific; they both ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Pacific basin. This season was one of the latest-starting Pacific hurricane seasons on record, with the first tropical cyclone, Hurricane Alvin, forming on June 25. The final system, Tropical Depression Twenty-One-E, dissipated on November 18.
The 2020 Pacific hurricane season was a near average Pacific hurricane season in terms of named storms, featuring 17, but well below average season for hurricanes and major hurricanes, with only 4 hurricanes and 3 major hurricanes forming. Additionally, no tropical cyclones formed in the Central Pacific basin for the first time since 2017. The season officially began on May 15 in the East Pacific Ocean, and on June 1 in the Central Pacific (from 140°W to the International Date Line, north of the equator; they both ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the respective regions. However, the formation of tropical cyclones is possible at any time of the year, as illustrated in 2020 by the formation of the season's first system, Tropical Depression One-E, on April 25. This was the earliest formation of a tropical cyclone on record in the eastern Pacific basin proper. The final system of the season was Tropical Storm Polo, which dissipated on November 19.
References
↑ Dorst, Neal. "When is hurricane season?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Archived from the original on December 6, 2010. Retrieved November 25, 2010.
↑ Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center; E.B. Gunther and R.L. Cross; National Weather Service Western Region (1986). "Annual data and verification tabulation, eastern North Pacific tropical storms and hurricanes, 1985". National Weather Service.
↑ "From Wire Reports". The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Constitution. October 27, 1985. pp.A/13.
1 2 National Hurricane Operations Plan(PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 1985. pp.3-4, 7–8. Retrieved January 16, 2024.
↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan(PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 1979. p.10. Retrieved January 16, 2024.
↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan(PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. April 1991. p.3-7. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
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