Biochar carbon removal

Last updated

Biochar carbon removal (also called pyrogenic carbon capture and storage ) is a negative emissions technology. It involves the production of biochar through pyrolysis of residual biomass and the subsequent application of the biochar in soils or durable materials (e.g. cement, tar). The carbon dioxide sequestered by the plants used for the biochar production is therewith stored for several hundreds of years, which creates carbon sinks.

Contents

Definition

Biochar applied to the soil in research trials in Namibia Biochar Application.jpg
Biochar applied to the soil in research trials in Namibia

The term refers to the practice of producing biochar from sustainably sourced biomass and ensuring that it is stored for a long period of time. The concept makes use of the photosynthesis process, through which plants remove CO2 from the atmosphere during their growth. This carbon dioxide is stabilised within the biochar during the production process and can subsequently be stored for several hundreds or thousands of years.

Biochar Carbon Removal falls into the category of carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies. [1] [2] It is considered to be a rapidly implemented and capital-efficient negative emissions technology ideal for smaller scale installations such as farmers, and also to help rural diversification in developing countries. [3] [4] [5] [6] This is, amongst others, reflected in the guidance documents of the Science Based Targets initiative. [7] [8]

Scientifically, this process is often referred to as Pyrogenic Carbon Capture and Storage (PyCCS). [9] [10] The term biochar carbon removal was introduced by the European Biochar Industry Consortium in 2023 [11] and has since been adopted by various institutions and experts.

Biochar Rarbon Removal can also be categorised as a form of Biomass Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS). [12]

Beyond carbon sequestration, biochar application has various other potential benefits, such as increased yield and root biomass, water use efficiency and microbial activity. [13]

Biochar production

Biochar is produced through the pyrolysis process. Biomass (e.g. residual plant material from landscaping or agricultural processes) is reduced to smaller pieces is heated to 350–900 °C (662–1,652 °F) under oxygen-deficient conditions. This results in solid biochar and by-products (bio-oil, pyrogas). [14] [10] In order to maximise the carbon storage potential, typically those biochar technologies are used that minimise combustion and avoid the loss of pyrogas into the atmosphere. [9]

In low-oxygen conditions, the thermal-chemical conversion of organic materials (including biomass) produces both volatiles, termed pyrolytic gases (pyrogases), as well as solid carbonaceous co-products, termed biochar. While the pyrogases mostly condense into liquid bio-oil, which may be used as an energy source, biochar has been proposed as a tool for sequestering carbon in soil. [15]

The global biochar market is expected to reach USD 368.85 million by 2028. [16]

Internationally there are several voluntary standards that regulate the biochar production process and product quality. These include the following (non-exhaustive list):

Carbon removal potential

Global scope

Three main carbonaceous products are generated during pyrolysis, which can be stored subsequently in different ways to produce negative emissions: a solid biochar for various applications, a pyrolytic liquid (bio-oil) pumped into depleted fossil oil repositories, and permanent-pyrogas (dominated by the combustible gases CO, H2 and CH4) that may be transferred as CO2 to geological storage after combustion. [1]

In 2022/2023, biochar carbon removal accounted for 87–92% of all delivered carbon removals. [19]

The potential extent of carbon removal with biochar is the subject of ongoing research. Using current waste from the farming and forestry industry worldwide, an estimated 6% of global emissions, equivalent to 3 billion tonnes of CO2, could be removed annually over a 100 year time frame. [20] More broadly, the potential is quantified to be between 0.3 and 4.9 billion tonnes of CO2 per year (GtCO2 yr−1). [21]

Permanence

Permanence in carbon products is a good indicator of the quality or durability of the material. It also describes the amount of time that carbon can be stored in a material. Biochar is produced by rapidly carbonizing organic matter into maceral. [22] There is evidence that biochar, produced at pyrolysis temperature over 600 °C (1,112 °F), resembles inertinite and thus highly stable. [23] [24]

The level to which carbon dioxide is fixed and stored, depends both on the biochar production process and the subsequent application. If produced under certain conditions, 97% of the total organic carbon in biochar is highly refractory carbon, i.e. carbon that has near infinite stability. This implies that biochar can have a very high permanence in terms of carbon dioxide storage. [25] Although the permanence of biochar is very high, the biggest setback to this process is making sure the pyrolysis has been achieved efficiently.

Applications

There are several applications that are considered to store CO2 for long periods of time:

Biochar-based carbon credits

Biochar Carbon Removal is increasingly seen as a promising negative emissions technology suitable for offsetting and carbon markets. Biochar Carbon credits are considered to be the best type of Carbon credit as they increase economic viability of the companies claiming them, and biochar stays in soil for hundreds if not thousands of years, ensuring that carbon is locked away from the atmosphere. [33]

Market size

Trade in biochar carbon removal credits is still limited to a small number of suppliers and credit off-takers. In 2022, out of 592,969 carbon dioxide removal credits purchased on the voluntary carbon market, 40% were based on biochar carbon removal projects. [34]

Standards

For the purpose of generating carbon credits, there are several internationally recognised voluntary biochar standards and methodologies. These include the following (non-exhaustive list): [35] [36]

Several biochar production and carbon credit standards define criteria for permissible biomass feedstocks for biochar carbon removal. For example, the European Biochar Certificate (EBC) features a positive list of permissible biomasses for the production of biochar. This list includes agricultural residues, cultivated biomass, residues from forestry operations and sawmills, residues from landscaping activities, recycled feedstock, kitchen waste, food processing residues, textiles, anaerobic digestion, sludges from wastewater treatment, and animal by-products. [37] In order for a credit to be certified suppliers must be carbon net-negative which indicates that they sequester more carbon then they use in the creation and distribution of biochar. [38]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon sink</span> Reservoir absorbing more carbon from, than emitting to, the air

A carbon sink is a natural or artificial carbon sequestration process that "removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere". These sinks form an important part of the natural carbon cycle. An overarching term is carbon pool, which is all the places where carbon on Earth can be, i.e. the atmosphere, oceans, soil, florae, fossil fuel reservoirs and so forth. A carbon sink is a type of carbon pool that has the capability to take up more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyrolysis</span> Thermal decomposition of materials

Pyrolysis is the process of thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures, often in an inert atmosphere without access to oxygen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bagasse</span> Residue of sugar cane after juice extraction

Bagasse is the dry pulpy fibrous material that remains after crushing sugarcane or sorghum stalks to extract their juice. It is used as a biofuel for the production of heat, energy, and electricity, and in the manufacture of pulp and building materials. Agave bagasse is similar, but is the material remnants after extracting blue agave sap.

Climate engineering is the intentional large-scale alteration of the planetary environment to counteract anthropogenic climate change. The term has been used as an umbrella term for both carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation modification when applied at a planetary scale. However, these two processes have very different characteristics, and are now often discussed separately. Carbon dioxide removal techniques remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and are part of climate change mitigation. Solar radiation modification is the reflection of some sunlight back to space to cool the earth. Some publications include passive radiative cooling as a climate engineering technology. The media tends to also use climate engineering for other technologies such as glacier stabilization, ocean liming, and iron fertilization of oceans. The latter would modify carbon sequestration processes that take place in oceans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioenergy</span> Renewable energy made from biomass

Bioenergy is a type of renewable energy that is derived from plants and animal waste. The biomass that is used as input materials consists of recently living organisms, mainly plants. Thus, fossil fuels are not regarded as biomass under this definition. Types of biomass commonly used for bioenergy include wood, food crops such as corn, energy crops and waste from forests, yards, or farms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change mitigation</span> Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change

Climate change mitigation (or decarbonisation) is action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Climate change mitigation actions include conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Current climate change mitigation policies are insufficient as they would still result in global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100, significantly above the 2015 Paris Agreement's goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biomass to liquid</span>

Biomass to liquid is a multi-step process of producing synthetic hydrocarbon fuels made from biomass via a thermochemical route.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon sequestration</span> Storing carbon in a carbon pool

Carbon sequestration is the process of storing carbon in a carbon pool. It plays a crucial role in limiting climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: biologic and geologic.

Pyrolysis oil, sometimes also known as biocrude or bio-oil, is a synthetic fuel with few industrial application and under investigation as substitute for petroleum. It is obtained by heating dried biomass without oxygen in a reactor at a temperature of about 500 °C (900 °F) with subsequent cooling, separation from the aqueous phase and other processes. Pyrolysis oil is a kind of tar and normally contains levels of oxygen too high to be considered a pure hydrocarbon. This high oxygen content results in non-volatility, corrosiveness, partial miscibility with fossil fuels, thermal instability, and a tendency to polymerize when exposed to air. As such, it is distinctly different from petroleum products. Removing oxygen from bio-oil or nitrogen from algal bio-oil is known as upgrading.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biochar</span> Lightweight black residue, made of carbon and ashes, after pyrolysis of biomass

Biochar is charcoal, sometimes modified, that is intended for organic use, as in soil. It is the lightweight black remnants, consisting of carbon and ashes, remaining after the pyrolysis of biomass, and is a form of charcoal. Biochar is defined by the International Biochar Initiative as the "solid material obtained from the thermochemical conversion of biomass in an oxygen-limited environment".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Virgin Earth Challenge</span> Competition for permanent removal of greenhouse gases

The Virgin Earth Challenge was a competition offering a $25 million prize for whoever could demonstrate a commercially viable design which results in the permanent removal of greenhouse gases out of the Earth's atmosphere to contribute materially in global warming avoidance. The prize was conceived by Richard Branson, and was announced in London on 9 February 2007 by Branson and former US Vice President Al Gore.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slash-and-char</span> Farming method for clearing vegetation

Slash-and-char is an alternative to slash-and-burn that has a lesser effect on the environment. It is the practice of charring the biomass resulting from the slashing instead of burning it. Due to incomplete combustion (pyrolysis) the resulting residue matter charcoal can be utilized as biochar to improve the soil fertility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon dioxide removal</span> Removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide through human activity

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is a process in which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities and durably stored in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. This process is also known as carbon removal, greenhouse gas removal or negative emissions. CDR is more and more often integrated into climate policy, as an element of climate change mitigation strategies. Achieving net zero emissions will require first and foremost deep and sustained cuts in emissions, and then—in addition—the use of CDR. In the future, CDR may be able to counterbalance emissions that are technically difficult to eliminate, such as some agricultural and industrial emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</span>

Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) is the process of extracting bioenergy from biomass and capturing and storing the carbon dioxide (CO2) that is produced.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrothermal carbonization</span>

Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is a chemical process for the conversion of organic compounds to structured carbons. It can be used to make a wide variety of nanostructured carbons, simple production of brown coal substitute, synthesis gas, liquid petroleum precursors and humus from biomass with release of energy. Technically the process imitates, within a few hours, the brown coal formation process which takes place in nature over enormously longer geological periods of 50,000 to 50 million years. It was investigated by Friedrich Bergius and first described in 1913.

Enhanced weathering, also termed ocean alkalinity enhancement when proposed for carbon credit systems, is a process that aims to accelerate the natural weathering by spreading finely ground silicate rock, such as basalt, onto surfaces which speeds up chemical reactions between rocks, water, and air. It also removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, permanently storing it in solid carbonate minerals or ocean alkalinity. The latter also slows ocean acidification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Terrestrial biological carbon cycle</span>

The carbon cycle is an essential part of life on Earth. About half the dry weight of most living organisms is carbon. It plays an important role in the structure, biochemistry, and nutrition of all living cells. Living biomass holds about 550 gigatons of carbon, most of which is made of terrestrial plants (wood), while some 1,200 gigatons of carbon are stored in the terrestrial biosphere as dead biomass.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue carbon</span> Carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems

Blue carbon is a concept within climate change mitigation that refers to "biologically driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems that are amenable to management". Most commonly, it refers to the role that tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrass meadows can play in carbon sequestration. These ecosystems can play an important role for climate change mitigation and ecosystem-based adaptation. However, when blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost, they release carbon back to the atmosphere, thereby adding to greenhouse gas emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon farming</span> Agricultural methods that capture carbon

Carbon farming is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the soil, crop roots, wood and leaves. The technical term for this is carbon sequestration. The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the soil's organic matter content. This can also aid plant growth, improve soil water retention capacity and reduce fertilizer use. Sustainable forest management is another tool that is used in carbon farming. Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture. It is also one way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kenneth Möllersten</span> Swedish researcher

Kenneth Karl Mikael Möllersten is a Swedish researcher. He holds a PhD in chemical engineering and an MSc in mechanical engineering, both from the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden. Möllersten is a consultant and researcher at IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, was previously affiliated as a researcher with Mälardalen University and is currently affiliated with KTH.

References

  1. 1 2 Constanze Werner et al. (2018): Biogeochemical potential of biomass pyrolysis systems for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C. Environmental Research Letters, 13(4), 044036. doi : 10.1088/1748-9326/aabb0e
  2. ↑ N McGlashan; M Workman; B Caldecott; N Shah (October 2012). "Negative Emissions Technologies" (PDF). Grantham Institute for Climate Change. Imperial College London. p. 15. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
  3. ↑ Medium.com (2023-03-31). "How biochar emerged as an unexpected champion in the fight against the climate crisis". CEEZER. Retrieved 2023-04-03.
  4. ↑ M.A, Aparna (2023-05-16). "Biochar: The Miracle Material For a Sustainable World". Earth.Org. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
  5. ↑ Wang, Liuwei; Deng, Jiayu; Yang, Xiaodong; Hou, Renjie; Hou, Deyi (2023-01-16). "Role of biochar toward carbon neutrality". Carbon Research. 2 (1): 2. Bibcode:2023CarRe...2....2W. doi: 10.1007/s44246-023-00035-7 . ISSN   2731-6696.
  6. ↑ Moya, Berta (2023-11-23). "Biochar is carbon removal's jack of all trades. Here's why". World Economic Forum. Retrieved 2024-10-21.
  7. ↑ "Forest, Land and Agriculture (FLAG) Guidence". Science Based Targets Initiative (SBTi). Retrieved 2023-05-10.
  8. ↑ Luckhurst, Karen (2022-10-05). "Biochar: the 'black gold' for soils that is getting big bets on offset markets". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-05-10.
  9. 1 2 Schmidt, Hans-Peter; Anca-Couce, Andrés; Hagemann, Nikolas; Werner, Constanze; Gerten, Dieter; Lucht, Wolfgang; Kammann, Claudia (April 2019). "Pyrogenic carbon capture and storage". GCB Bioenergy. 11 (4): 573–591. Bibcode:2019GCBBi..11..573S. doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12553 .
  10. 1 2 Werner, C; Schmidt, H-P; Gerten, D; Lucht, W; Kammann, C (2018-04-01). "Biogeochemical potential of biomass pyrolysis systems for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C". Environmental Research Letters. 13 (4): 044036. Bibcode:2018ERL....13d4036W. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/aabb0e . ISSN   1748-9326.
  11. ↑ "European Biochar Industry Consortium on LinkedIn". www.linkedin.com. Retrieved 2023-05-10.
  12. ↑ Early, Catherine (15 November 2023). "Analysis: why biomass removals credits like biochar are luring investors" . Retrieved 2024-11-08.
  13. ↑ Schmidt, Hans-Peter; Kammann, Claudia; Hagemann, Nikolas; Leifeld, Jens; Bucheli, Thomas D.; Sánchez Monedero, Miguel Angel; Cayuela, Maria Luz (November 2021). "Biochar in agriculture – A systematic review of 26 global meta-analyses". GCB Bioenergy. 13 (11): 1708–1730. Bibcode:2021GCBBi..13.1708S. doi:10.1111/gcbb.12889. hdl: 10261/263150 . ISSN   1757-1693.
  14. ↑ Gabhane, Jagdish W.; Bhange, Vivek P.; Patil, Pravin D.; Bankar, Sneha T.; Kumar, Sachin (2020-06-30). "Recent trends in biochar production methods and its application as a soil health conditioner: a review". SN Applied Sciences. 2 (7): 1307. doi: 10.1007/s42452-020-3121-5 . ISSN   2523-3971.
  15. 1 2 3 Criscuoli, Irene; Alberti, Giorgio; Baronti, Silvia; Favilli, Filippo; Martinez, Cristina; Calzolari, Costanza; Pusceddu, Emanuela; Rumpel, Cornelia; Viola, Roberto (2014-03-10). "Carbon Sequestration and Fertility after Centennial Time Scale Incorporation of Charcoal into Soil". PLOS ONE. 9 (3): e91114. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...991114C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091114 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3948733 . PMID   24614647.
  16. 1 2 Kurniawan, Tonni Agustiono; Othman, Mohd Hafiz Dzarfan; Liang, Xue; Goh, Hui Hwang; Gikas, Petros; Chong, Kok-Keong; Chew, Kit Wayne (April 2023). "Challenges and opportunities for biochar to promote circular economy and carbon neutrality". Journal of Environmental Management. 332: 117429. Bibcode:2023JEnvM.33217429K. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117429. PMID   36773474.
  17. ↑ "EBC and WBC guidelines & documents". www.european-biochar.org. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
  18. ↑ "Biochar Standards". International Biochar Initiative. Retrieved 2024-11-12.
  19. ↑ "cdr.fyi". www.cdr.fyi. Retrieved 2023-12-10.
  20. ↑ Lefebvre, David; Fawzy, Samer; Aquije, Camila A.; Osman, Ahmed I.; Draper, Kathleen T.; Trabold, Thomas A. (2023-10-11). "Biomass residue to carbon dioxide removal: quantifying the global impact of biochar". Biochar. 5 (1): 65. Bibcode:2023Bioch...5...65L. doi: 10.1007/s42773-023-00258-2 . ISSN   2524-7867.
  21. ↑ Roe, Stephanie; Streck, Charlotte; Obersteiner, Michael; Frank, Stefan; Griscom, Bronson; Drouet, Laurent; Fricko, Oliver; Gusti, Mykola; Harris, Nancy; Hasegawa, Tomoko; Hausfather, Zeke; Havlík, Petr; House, Jo; Nabuurs, Gert-Jan; Popp, Alexander (November 2019). "Contribution of the land sector to a 1.5 °C world". Nature Climate Change. 9 (11): 817–828. Bibcode:2019NatCC...9..817R. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0591-9. hdl: 2164/14119 . ISSN   1758-6798.
  22. ↑ Sanei, Hamed; Rudra, Arka; Przyswitt, Zia Møller Moltesen; Kousted, Sofie; Sindlev, Marco Benkhettab; Zheng, Xiaowei; Nielsen, Søren Bom; Petersen, Henrik Ingermann (2024-01-05). "Assessing biochar's permanence: An inertinite benchmark". International Journal of Coal Geology. 281: 104409. doi:10.1016/j.coal.2023.104409. ISSN   0166-5162.
  23. ↑ Sanei, Hamed; Rudra, Arka; Przyswitt, Zia Møller Moltesen; Kousted, Sofie; Sindlev, Marco Benkhettab; Zheng, Xiaowei; Nielsen, Søren Bom; Petersen, Henrik Ingermann (2023-12-09). "Assessing biochar's permanence: An inertinite benchmark". International Journal of Coal Geology. 281: 104409. doi: 10.1016/j.coal.2023.104409 . ISSN   0166-5162.
  24. ↑ Sanei, Hamed; Petersen, Henrik Ingermann (2023-02-22). Carbon permanence of biochar; a lesson learned from the geologically preserved charcoal in carbonaceous rocks (Report). Copernicus Meetings.
  25. ↑ Petersen, H. I.; Lassen, L.; Rudra, A.; Nguyen, L. X.; Do, P. T. M.; Sanei, H. (2023-04-04). "Carbon stability and morphotype composition of biochars from feedstocks in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam". International Journal of Coal Geology. 271: 104233. Bibcode:2023IJCG..27104233P. doi: 10.1016/j.coal.2023.104233 . ISSN   0166-5162.
  26. ↑ Zimmerman, Andrew; Gao, Bin (2013-02-21), "The Stability of Biochar in the Environment", Biochar and Soil Biota, CRC Press, pp. 1–40, doi:10.1201/b14585-2 (inactive 2024-11-11), ISBN   9781466576483 {{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  27. ↑ Schmidt, Hans-Peter; Anca-Couce, Andrés; Hagemann, Nikolas; Werner, Constanze; Gerten, Dieter; Lucht, Wolfgang; Kammann, Claudia (2018). "Pyrogenic carbon capture and storage". GCB Bioenergy. 11 (4): 573–591. Bibcode:2019GCBBi..11..573S. doi: 10.1111/gcbb.12553 . ISSN   1757-1707.
  28. 1 2 "Web of Science". www.webofscience.com. Retrieved 2024-10-28.
  29. ↑ Gan, Xinli; Zhang, Wenli (February 25, 2016). "Application of biochar from crop straw in asphalt modification". PLOS ONE. 16 (2): e0247390. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0247390 . PMC   7906466 . PMID   33630886.
  30. ↑ Adeniyi, Adewale George; Iwuozor, Kingsley O; Emenike, Ebuka Chizitere; Amoloye, Mubarak A; Aransiola, Emmanuel S; Motolani, Fawaz O; Kayode, Sodiq H (2023-03-01). "Prospects and problems in the development of biochar-filled plastic composites: a review". Functional Composites and Structures. 5 (1): 012002. Bibcode:2023FCS.....5a2002A. doi:10.1088/2631-6331/acb19b. ISSN   2631-6331.
  31. ↑ Kane, Seth; Van Roijen, Elisabeth; Ryan, Cecily; Miller, Sabbie (2022-07-01). "Reducing the environmental impacts of plastics while increasing strength: Biochar fillers in biodegradable, recycled, and fossil-fuel derived plastics". Composites Part C: Open Access. 8: 100253. doi: 10.1016/j.jcomc.2022.100253 . ISSN   2666-6820.
  32. ↑ Al-Rumaihi, Aisha; Alherbawi, Mohammad; Mckay, Gordon; Mackey, Hamish; Parthasarathy, Prakash; Al-Ansari, Tareq (2023-07-05). "Assessing plastic and biomass-based biochar's potential for carbon sequestration: an energy-water-environment approach". Frontiers in Sustainability. 4. doi: 10.3389/frsus.2023.1200094 . ISSN   2673-4524.
  33. ↑ "Biochar carbon credits - Removing carbon from the atmosphere | GECA". GECA Environnement. Retrieved 2024-11-12.
  34. ↑ CDR.fyi (2023-01-04). "CDR.fyi 2022 Year in Review". CDR-fyi. Retrieved 2023-04-03.
  35. ↑ "How biochar emerged as an unexpected champion in the fight against the climate crisis". www.ceezer.earth. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
  36. ↑ Salma, Alaa; Fryda, Lydia; Djelal, Hayet (February 2024). "Biochar: A Key Player in Carbon Credits and Climate Mitigation". Resources. 13 (2): 31. doi: 10.3390/resources13020031 . ISSN   2079-9276.
  37. ↑ EBC (2023) Positive list of permissible biomasses for the production of biochar. production of biochar. https://www.european-biochar.org/media/doc/2/positive-list_en_v10_3.pdf.
  38. ↑ "Understanding Biochar Carbon Credits". Wakefield BioChar. Retrieved 2024-11-12.

Videos

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.