Treehopper

Last updated

Treehopper
Ceresa taurina.JPG
Ceresa taurina
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Auchenorrhyncha
Infraorder: Cicadomorpha
Superfamily: Membracoidea
Family: Membracidae
Rafinesque, 1815
Subfamilies

Centronodinae (disputed)
Centrotinae
Darninae
Endoiastinae
Heteronotinae
Membracinae
Nicomiinae (disputed)
Smiliinae
Stegaspidinae (disputed)
and see text

Contents

Synonyms

Nicomiidae

Treehoppers (more precisely typical treehoppers to distinguish them from the Aetalionidae) and thorn bugs are members of the family Membracidae, a group of insects related to the cicadas and the leafhoppers. About 3,200 species of treehoppers in over 400 genera are known. [1] They are found on all continents except Antarctica; only five species are known from Europe.[ citation needed ] Individual treehoppers usually live for only a few months.

Morphology

A treehopper of the species Heteronotus nodosus investigated by Micro-CT, revealing the interior morphology. The interior of the extended pronotum, in this species mimicking a wasp's body, is empty.

Treehoppers, due to their unusual appearance, have long interested naturalists. They are best known for their enlarged and ornate pronotum, expanded into often fantastic shapes that enhance their camouflage or mimicry, often resembling plant thorns (thus the commonly used name of "thorn bugs" for a number of treehopper species). Treehoppers have specialized muscles in the hind femora that unfurl to generate sufficient force to jump. [2]

It had been suggested that the pronotal "helmet" could be serial homologues of insect wings, [3] but this interpretation has been refuted by several later studies (e.g., [4] [5] ).

Treehopper nymphs can be recognised by the tube-like ninth abdominal segment, through which the tenth and eleventh segments can be exerted in defence or to provide honeydew to other animals (explained further in the next section). The tube is longer (compared to the rest of the body) in early instars compared to late instars. [6]

Ecology

Treehoppers pierce plant stems with their beaks and feed upon sap.[ clarification needed ] The young can frequently be found on herbaceous shrubs and grasses, while the adults more often frequent hardwood tree species. Excess sap becomes concentrated as honeydew, which often attracts ants. Some species have a well-developed ant mutualism, and these species are normally gregarious as well, which attracts more ants. The ants provide protection from predators. Treehoppers mimic thorns to prevent predators from spotting them.[ citation needed ]

Others have formed mutualisms with wasps, such as Parachartergus apicalis . [7] Even geckos form mutualistic relations with treehoppers, with whom they communicate by small vibrations of the abdomen. [8]

Mutualisms are not done only for protection against predators. Nymphs of the treehopper Publilia concava have higher survivorship in the presence of ants even when predators are absent. This is suspected to be because uncollected honeydew leads to the growth of sooty mould, which may hinder excretion by treehoppers and photosynthesis by their host plants. Ant collection of honeydew thus allows treehoppers to feed more (the feeding facilitation hypothesis). [9]

Eggs are laid by the female with her saw-like ovipositor in slits cut into the cambium or live tissue of stems, though some species lay eggs on top of leaves or stems. The eggs may be parasitised by wasps, such as the tiny fairyflies (Mymaridae) and Trichogrammatidae. The females of some membracid species sit over their eggs to protect them from predators and parasites, and may buzz their wings at intruders. The females of some gregarious species work together to protect each other's eggs. In at least one species, Publilia modesta , mothers serve to attract ants when nymphs are too small to produce much honeydew. Some other species make feeding slits for the nymphs. [10]

Most species are innocuous to humans, although a few are considered minor pests, such as Umbonia crassicornis (a thorn bug), the three-cornered alfalfa hopper ( Spissistilus festinus ), and the buffalo treehopper (Stictocephala bisonia), which has been introduced to Europe. The cowbug Oxyrachis tarandus has been recorded as a pest of Withania somnifera in India. [11]

Systematics

The diversity of treehoppers has been little researched, and their systematic arrangement is tentative. It seems three main lineages can be distinguished; the Endoiastinae are the most ancient treehoppers, still somewhat resembling cicadas. Centrotinae form the second group; they are somewhat more advanced but the pronotum still does not cover the scutellum in almost all of these. The Darninae, Heteronotinae, Membracinae and Smiliinae contain the most apomorphic treehoppers.[ citation needed ]

Several proposed subfamilies seem to be paraphyletic. Centronodinae and Nicomiinae might need to be merged into the Centrotinae to result in a monophyletic group.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemiptera</span> Order of insects often called true bugs

Hemiptera is an order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, assassin bugs, bed bugs, and shield bugs. They range in size from 1 mm (0.04 in) to around 15 cm (6 in), and share a common arrangement of piercing-sucking mouthparts. The name "true bugs" is often limited to the suborder Heteroptera.

<i>Withania somnifera</i> Species of plant

Withania somnifera, known commonly as ashwagandha or winter cherry, is an evergreen shrub in the Solanaceae or nightshade family that grows in India, the Middle East, and parts of Africa. Several other species in the genus Withania are morphologically similar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leafhopper</span> Family of insects

Leafhopper is the common name for any species from the family Cicadellidae. These minute insects, colloquially known as hoppers, are plant feeders that suck plant sap from grass, shrubs, or trees. Their hind legs are modified for jumping, and are covered with hairs that facilitate the spreading of a secretion over their bodies that acts as a water repellent and carrier of pheromones. They undergo a partial metamorphosis, and have various host associations, varying from very generalized to very specific. Some species have a cosmopolitan distribution, or occur throughout the temperate and tropical regions. Some are pests or vectors of plant viruses and phytoplasmas. The family is distributed all over the world, and constitutes the second-largest hemipteran family, with at least 20,000 described species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Auchenorrhyncha</span> Suborder of insects

The Auchenorrhyncha suborder of the Hemiptera contains most of the familiar members of what was called the "Homoptera" – groups such as cicadas, leafhoppers, treehoppers, planthoppers, and spittlebugs. The aphids and scale insects are the other well-known "Homoptera", and they are in the suborder Sternorrhyncha.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Honeydew (secretion)</span> Sugar-rich liquid

Honeydew is a sugar-rich sticky liquid, secreted by aphids, some scale insects, and many other true bugs and some other insects as they feed on plant sap. When their mouthpart penetrates the phloem, the sugary, high-pressure liquid is forced out of the anus of the aphid. Honeydew is particularly common as a secretion in hemipteran insects and is often the basis for trophobiosis. Some caterpillars of Lycaenidae butterflies and some moths also produce honeydew.

<i>Umbonia crassicornis</i> Species of true bug

Umbonia crassicornis, commonly known as the thorn bug, is a widespread member of the insect family Membracidae, and an occasional pest of ornamentals and fruit trees in southern Florida. The body length of the adult is approximately 10 millimetres (0.39 in). This is a variable species as to size, color and structure, particularly the pronotal horn of males. This tall, essentially perpendicular thorn-like pronotum discourages birds and other predators from eating it, if only by mistakenly confusing it with a thorn. Typically, the adult is green or yellow with reddish lines and brownish markings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Buffalo treehopper</span> Species of true bug

The buffalo treehopper is a species of treehopper belonging to the subfamily Membracinae. It is sometimes classified as Ceresa bisonia.

<i>Stictocephala</i> Genus of true bugs

Stictocephala is a genus of treehoppers in the family Membracidae; in the subfamily Smiliinae and tribe Ceresini. Species appear to be distributed mostly in North America, but S. bisonia has become widely distributed in Europe.

<i>Parachartergus apicalis</i> Species of wasp

Parachartergus apicalis is a species of wasp in the Polistinae subfamily, found in the Neotropics. It was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1804. In Honduras, they are known as alas blancas, which translates into English as "white wings".

<i>Eurymeloides bicincta</i> Species of true bug

Eurymeloides bicincta, commonly known as the two-lined gum-treehopper, is a leafhopper in the family Cicadellidae. It is the type species of the genus Eurymeloides. It is a sap-sucking insect and is found on gum-trees in its native southeastern Australia.

<i>Aconophora compressa</i> Species of true bug

Aconophora compressa is a species of insect in the treehopper family, Membracidae. It is known by the common names lantana bug, lantana treehopper, lantana stemsucking treehopper, and lantana sap-sucking bug.

<i>Umbonia spinosa</i> Species of treehopper


Umbonia spinosa is a species of treehopper native to South America. It belongs to the Membracidae family.

<i>Enchenopa binotata</i> complex Species of true bug

Enchenopa binotata is a complex of multiple species found mostly in Eastern North America, but have also been reported in Central America. They are commonly referred to as treehoppers and are sap-feeding insects. The species in the complex look similar to each other in morphology, but are identified as different species by the host plant they occupy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aetalionidae</span> Family of true bugs

Aetalionidae are a family of treehoppers in the superfamily Membracoidea. Aetalionidae are somewhat like Membracidae in that they have one to three rows of short spines on the hind tibia but differ in having the front femur fused to the trochanter and the scutellum is completely exposed. The females have finger-like protrusions on the genital capsule. The family is mostly Neotropical. The subfamily Biturritiinae is Neotropical while the subfamily Aetalioninae has a Neotropical genus Aetalion and the sole Old World representative genus Darthula with a single species Darthula hardwickii.

<i>Entylia carinata</i> Species of true bug

Entylia carinata, commonly known as the keeled treehopper, is a species of treehopper in the family Membracidae. They can be found in Brazil, Panama, Mexico, the United States, and Canada. Keeled treehoppers are often attended by ants which feed on the honeydew they excrete. In return, the ants offer protection from predators. Keeled treehoppers typically feed on plants in the aster family and they are not known to transmit plant diseases and are not considered significant plant pests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smiliinae</span> Subfamily of treehoppers

Smiliinae is a subfamily of treehoppers in the family Membracidae. These are bugs and include about 100 genera in 10 tribes.

<i>Tylopelta gibbera</i> Species of true bug

Tylopelta gibbera is a species of treehopper in the family Membracidae. This insect has a range which extends from Guatemala into the central United States, although it is occasionally found in Canada. Vibrational communication has been noted in this species, although there is discussion as to what exactly it is being used for.

<i>Bocydium globulare</i> Species of true bug

The Brazilian treehopper is a species of insect belonging to the treehopper family (Membracidae). It has unusual appendages on its head. While Bocydium can be found throughout the world, they are most prevalent in Africa, North and South America, Asia and Australia. They exhibit limited movement and their primary food source is from the underside of leaves. They also exhibit hemimetabolous development. Treehoppers range from about two millimeters to two centimeters in length.

<i>Stictocephala alta</i> Species of true bug

Stictocephala alta is a species of treehopper in the family Membracidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Centrotinae</span> Subfamily of insects

Centrotinae is a subfamily within the treehoppers (Membracidae) and is the largest and only subfamily with a worldwide distribution of species. There are nearly 1350 species placed in 216 genera. Species in the genus make use of a wide range of host plants belonging to 105 plant families with dominant ones being Leguminosae, Compositae, Solanaceae, and Euphorbiaceae. Most species have relationships with ants that tend them for honeydew. The Centrotinae typically have the posterior pronotal process not concealing the scutellum and the forewing has the clavus truncated at the apex and having a broad apical limbus. Exceptions in which the scutellum are partly concealed can be found both in the New and Old World.

References

  1. Treehoppers. Dr. Metcalf. NCSU Libraries. North Carolina State University.
  2. Burrows, M. (2013) Jumping mechanisms of treehopper insects (Hemiptera, Auchenorrhyncha, Membracidae). https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.078741
  3. Prud'homme B, Minervino C, Hocine M, Cande JD, Aouane A, et al. (2011) Body plan innovation in treehoppers through the evolution of an extra wing-like appendage. Nature 473: 83–86.
  4. István Mikó, Frank Friedrich, Matthew J. Yoder, Heather M. Hines, Lewis L. Deitz, Matthew A. Bertone, Katja C. Seltmann, Matthew S. Wallace, Andrew R. Deans (2012) On dorsal prothoracic appendages in treehoppers (Hemiptera: Membracidae) and the nature of morphological evidence. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030137
  5. Yoshizawa, K. (2012) The treehopper’s helmet is not homologous with wings (Hemiptera: Membracidae) Systematic Entomology. 37, 2–6.
  6. McKamey, Stuart H.; Wallner, Adam M.; Porter, Mitchell J. (30 September 2015). "Immatures of the New World treehopper tribe Amastrini (Hemiptera, Membracidae, Smiliinae) with a key to genera". ZooKeys (524): 65–87. Bibcode:2015ZooK..524...65M. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.524.5951 . ISSN   1313-2970. PMC   4602291 . PMID   26478706.
  7. Wetterer, J. K.; et al. (2000). "Diel shifts in treehopper-tending by ants and wasps in Costa Rica (Hymenoptera)" (PDF). Sociobiology. 36: 1.
  8. BBC documentary Life in Cold Blood , episode Dragons of the Dry , minute 22
  9. Morales, Manuel A. (2000). "MECHANISMS AND DENSITY DEPENDENCE OF BENEFIT IN AN ANT–MEMBRACID MUTUALISM" (PDF). Ecology. 81 (2): 482–489. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[0482:MADDOB]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   0012-9658.
  10. Lin, C.; et al. (2004). "Molecular phylogenetics and evolution of maternal care in membracine treehoppers" (PDF). Systematic Biology . 53 (3): 400–421. doi: 10.1080/10635150490445869 . PMID   15503670.
  11. Sharma, A; Pati, P.K. (2011). "First report of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, as a New Host of Cowbug (Oxyrachis tarandus, Fab.) in plains of Punjab, Northern India". World Applied Sci. J. 14 (9): 1344–1346.

Further reading