Celtic toponymy

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Map of Celtic-influenced regions of Europe, in dark green 1 and 2 : regions where Celtic languages are attested from the Middle Ages until today Celts in Europe.png
Map of Celtic-influenced regions of Europe, in dark green 1 and 2 : regions where Celtic languages are attested from the Middle Ages until today

Celtic toponymy is the study of place names wholly or partially of Celtic origin. These names are found throughout continental Europe, Britain, Ireland, Anatolia and, latterly, through various other parts of the globe not originally occupied by Celts.

Contents

Celtic languages

The Proto-Indo-European language developed into various daughter languages, including the Proto-Celtic language.

In Proto-Celtic ("PC"), the Proto-Indo-European ("PIE") sound *p disappeared, perhaps through an intermediate *ɸ. It is a common point between all the Celtic languages. Examples : Latin pater "father", but Gaulish *atir / ater (atrebo, dativ plural), (Old) Irish athair / athir. [1]

After that, languages derived from Proto-Celtic changed PC *kw into either *p or *k (see: P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages). In P-Celtic languages, PC *kw changed into *p. In Q-Celtic dialects it developed into /k/.

P-Celtic languages include the Continental Gaulish language and the Brittonic branch of Insular Celtic. Common Brittonic is the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton.

Ancient Q-Celtic languages include the Continental Celtiberian and the Goidelic branch of Insular Celtic. Goidelic is the ancestor of the Gaelic languages Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx.

Examples : PIE *kʷetwóres "four" >

Frequent elements in place-names and their cognates in modern Celtic languages

European connection

Continental Celtic

Austria

Belgium

Czech Republic

France

Most of the main cities in France have a Celtic name (the original Gaulish one or the name of the Gaulish tribe).

Germany

From Celtic *alisa, s.f., 'alder'. (Compare the modern German Erlenbach) and Old High German (OHG) aha, s.n., 'flowing water'.

Hungary

Italy

Netherlands

Poland

Portugal

Romania

Serbia

Slovenia

Spain

Asturias and Cantabria

  • Deva, several rivers in northern Spain, and Pontedeva, Galicia, Spain : from Celtic *diwā- 'goddess; holy, divine'
  • Mons Vindius (now the Cantabrian Mountains), NW Spain : from Celtic *windo- 'white'.

Castile

Galicia

  • Tambre, a river in Galicia (Spain), Latin Tamaris : possibly from Celtic *tames- 'dark' (cf. Celtic *temeslos > Welsh tywyll 'darkness'). Other theories.
  • O Grove, Medieval Latin Ogrobre 912: [12] from Celtic *ok-ro- 'acute; promontory' [13] and Celtic *brigs 'hill'.
  • Bergantiños, Medieval Latin Bregantinos 830 : from Celtic *brigant- 'high, lofty, elevated', or divine name Brigantia, or from Celtic *brigantīnos 'chief, king'. [14]
  • Dumbría, Medieval Latin Donobria 830 : from Celtic *dūnon 'fortress' + Celtic **brīwa 'bridge'.
  • Val do Dubra and Dubra River, Galicia : from Celtic *dubr- 'water', *dubrās 'waters' (Welsh dwfr).
  • Monforte de Lemos (region), Latin Lemavos, after the local tribe of the Lemavi : from Celtic *lemo- 'elm' + suffix -avo.
  • Nendos (region), Medieval Latin Nemitos 830 : from Celtic *nemeton 'sanctuary'.
  • Noia, Galicia, Spain, Greek Nouion: [15] from Celtic *nowijo- 'new' (Welsh newydd).

Switzerland

Switzerland, especially the Swiss Plateau, has many Celtic (Gaulish) toponyms. This old layer of names was overlaid with Latin names in the Gallo-Roman period, [16] and, from the medieval period, with Alemannic German [17] and Romance [18] names.

For some names, there is uncertainty as to whether they are Gaulish or Latin in origin. In some rare cases, such as Frick, Switzerland, there have even been competing suggestions of Gaulish, Latin and Alemannic etymologies. [19]

Examples of toponyms with established Gaulish etymology:

Insular Celtic

Goidelic

England

Place names in England derived partly or wholly from Goidelic languages include:

  • Ben, Yorkshire (Sedbergh), probably from the Gaelic benn ("a peak"). [21]
  • Cambois, Northumberland, possibly from Old Irish cambas ("bay, creek") [22]
  • †Crosskelloc, Lancashire (Ulverston), from Irish cros ("a cross") + Chelloc (personal name). [23]
  • Dunmallard, Cumberland, possibly from Middle Irish dùn-mallacht ("fort of curses") [24]
  • Durdar, Cumberland (St Cuthbert Without), from Gaelic doiredarach ("oak copse"). [21]
  • Greysouthen, Cumberland, from Irish craicc-Suthan ("Suthán's rock/cliff"). [21]
  • Kilmond, Yorkshire (Bowes), possibly from Gaelic ceann-monadh ("head of the hill"). [21]
  • Knockupworth, Cumberland (Grinsdale), from Irish cnocc ("hillock") (+ the Germanic personal-name Hubert). [21]
  • Latrigg, Cumberland, possibly from Old Irish lettir ("a slope"). [21]
  • Latterbarrow, Lancashire (Hawkshead), possibly from Irish lettir ("a slope"). [23]
  • Liscard, Cheshire, possibly from Irish Gaelic lios na carraige meaning "fort of the rock". [25]
  • Noctorum, Cheshire, from Irish cnocc-tírim ("dry hill"). [21]
  • Pool Darkin, Westmorland (Beetham), possibly from Gaelic poll ("pool") + the personal name *Dercan. [21]
  • Ravenglass, Cumberland, from Irish rann-Glas ("Glas's part/share"). [21]
  • Torkin, Cumberland (Thursby), from Irish tor-cheann ("peak-head"). [21]

Furthermore, some non-Goidelic place-names in mainly Northern and Midland England reference Irish personal names, due to Norse-Gaelic settlement Britain during the 10th century.

  • Carperby, Yorkshire containing the Irish Gaelic given-name Cairpe [26]
  • Dovenby, from personal name Dufan of Irish origin (OIr 'Dubhán')
  • Dunkenhalgh, Lancashire (Hyndburn), from the Gaelic personal name Donnchad (> Duncan) (+ Old English halh, "haugh"). [23]
  • Fixby, Yorkshire, from the Gaelic Irish personal name Fiach
  • Gatenby, Yorkshire, from the Irish personal name Gaithen (+ Old Norse byr, "farm"). [21]
  • Glassonby, from the Irish personal name Glassan
  • †Iocemhil, Lincolnshire (Killingholme), possibly contains the Irish personal name Eogan. [21]
  • Malmesbury, Wiltshire, from the Irish founder of the abbey Máel Dub
  • Mellishaw, Lancashire (Lancaster), possibly the Irish personal name Mdeldn (+ Old Norse haugr). [23]
  • Melmerby, Yorkshire, from the Old Irish personal name Máel Muire
  • Yockenthwaite, Yorkshire, contains the Irish personal name Eogan (+ Old Norse þveit, "clearing"). [21]

Place names that directly reference the Irish include Irby, Irby upon Humber, Ireby and Ireleth. Place names with Scot- or similar, such as Scothern in Lincolnshire or Scotton in the North Riding of Yorkshire, may refer to Gaelic speakers from Scotland or Ireland, since Old English Scottas originally had connotations of Irish Gaels.

Ireland

The vast majority of placenames in Ireland are anglicized Irish language names.

Scotland

The majority of placenames in the Highlands of Scotland (part of the United Kingdom) are either Scottish Gaelic or anglicized Scottish Gaelic. Gaelic-derived placenames are very common in the rest of mainland Scotland also. Pictish-derived placenames can be found in the northeast, while Brythonic-derived placenames can be found in the south.

Isle of Man

Many placenames on the Isle of Man (a Crown dependency) are Manx or anglicised Manx, although there are also many Norse-derived place names.

Brythonic

England (excluding Cornwall)

Evidence for a Celtic root to place names in England is widely strengthened by early monastic charters, chronicles and returns: examples relate to Leatherhead and Lichfield. To describe a place as of the Celts, the Old English wealh becoming Wal/Wall/Welsh is often used. This was the main Germanic term for Romano-Celtic peoples, such as the Britons. Such names are a minority, but are widespread across England. For example, a smattering of villages around the heart and east of The Fens hint at this: West Walton, Walsoken, and the Walpoles indicate their continued presence. Nearby Wisbech, King's Lynn and Chatteris have Celtic topographical elements.

  • Arden (forest of), Warwickshire

From Celtic *ardu- 'high' (Irish ard)

  • Avon (river), Gloucestershire/Wiltshire/Somerset
  • Avon (river), Wiltshire/Hampshire/Dorset
  • Avon (river), Northamptonshire/Warwickshire/Worcestershire/Gloucestershire
  • Avon or Aune (river), Devon

From Brythonic *abona 'river' (Welsh afon)

From Celtic *iska 'water' (Irish uisce)

First element from Celtic *briga 'hill'

From Celtic *brigant- 'high, lofty, elevated' (or divine name, Brigantia)

  • Bryn , Greater Manchester

Derived from Welsh bryn, 'hill'.

From *kamulos 'Camulus' (divine name) + Celtic *dūnon 'fortress'

First element from Brythonic *crüg 'hill' [27] (Irish cruach)

From Old Welsh *criu 'river crossing'

First two possibly linked. Latter from tribal name Dumnonii or Dumnones, from Celtic *dumno- 'deep', 'world'

From Celtic *dubr- 'water', *dubrās 'waters' (Welsh dwfr; Breton dour)

  • Durham , County Durham, Latin Dunelm

First element is possibly dun, ' hill fort' (Welsh ddin, 'fort').

First element from Celtic *duro- 'fort'; in Dūrobrīvae, Celtic *brīwa 'bridge'

Possibly derived from Brythonic *iska, 'water, fish' and *leith, 'damp, wet'.

From Celtic *iska 'water' (Irish uisce); second element in Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter) is a tribal name (see Devon) Frome from the Brythonic word Frama meaning fair, fine or brisk.

From Brythonic *lēd- [from Celtic *leito-] + *rïd- [from Celtic *(φ)ritu-] = "Grey Ford" [27]

  • Lincoln , Lincolnshire, Latin Lindum Colonia

From Celtic *lindo- 'pool' + Latin colonia 'colony'

From Celtic *mamm- 'breast' (referring to the shape of a hill)

From Celtic *nowijo- 'new' (Welsh newydd) + *magos 'field, plain'

Equivalent with Welsh pen-y-gant ("summit of the border") or pen-y-gynt ("summit of the heathen"). [24]

  • Pengethley, Herefordshire

From Brythonic *penn- 'hill, top, head, chief' (Welsh pen) + possibly *kelli 'to stand' (Welsh gelli)

From Brythonic *penn- 'hill, top, head, chief' (Welsh pen) + *koid- 'wood' (Welsh coed), or *cēd- 'wood' [27]

First element from Brythonic *penn- 'hill, top, head, chief' (Welsh pen 'head, end, chief, supreme') = Irish ceann 'head', from Proto-Celtic *kwenno-

  • Penn , Buckinghamshire
  • Penn , West Midlands

From Brythonic *penn- 'hill' (Welsh pen)

From English lower + Brythonic *penn- 'hill'

From Brythonic *penn- 'hill' and possibly p-Celtic *carr 'rocks'. This matches the earliest attestation from c. 1190, Pencher.

Old Sarum , Wiltshire, Latin Sorviodūnum Second element from Celtic *dūnon 'fortress'

First element conjectured to be Celtic for 'victorious', 'strength' or 'dry' (theories). Second element is Celtic *dūnon 'fortress'.

From Celtic *seno- 'old' + *dūnon 'fortress'

  • Tamar (river), Devon/Cornwall
  • Tame (river), Greater Manchester
  • Tame (river), North Yorkshire
  • Tame (river), West Midlands
  • Team (river), Tyne and Wear
  • Teme (river), Welsh Tefeidiad, Wales/Shropshire/Worcestershire
  • Thames (river), Latin Tamesis

Possibly from Celtic *tames- 'dark' (cf. Celtic *temeslos > Welsh tywyll 'darkness'). Other theories.

'Of the Trinovantes', a tribal name, perhaps 'very energetic people' from Celtic *tri- (intensive) + *now- 'energetic', related to *nowijo- 'new' (Welsh newydd)

From Brittonic *weru- 'broad' + *lam- 'hand' [from Celtic *(φ)lāmā] (Welsh llaw, Irish láimh)

First element from Celtic *windo- 'white' (Welsh gwyn); in Vindolanda, Celtic *landā 'land, place' (Welsh llan). In Vindomora, second element could be 'sea' (Welsh môr, Irish muir).

  • Wigan , Greater Manchester
  • York , Greek Ebōrakon, Latin Eboracum or Eburacum from Celtic *eburo- 'yew'

Scotland

The post-6th century AD Brittonic languages of Northern England and Scotland were Cumbric and Pictish. Cumbric place-names are found in Scotland south of the River Forth, [24] while Pictish names are found to the north. [28]

From **aber ("river mouth"). [29]

Formerly Abercrosan, from aber ("river mouth"). [29]

Possibly equivalent to Middle Welsh aran ("high place"). [30]

An Aghaidh Mhòr in Gaelic, possibly involving Brittonic *ag- ("a cleft"). [31]

Lomond is equivalent to Welsh llumon ("beacon"). [24]

Equivalent to Welsh blaen ("extremes, source, front") + tir ("land"). [24]

Formerly Bladebolg, from Brittonic *blawd ("meal") + *bolg ("sack"). [32]

  • Burnturk, Fife

Formerly Brenturk, equivalent to Welsh bryntwrch ("boar hill"). [29]

Equivalent to Welsh dôl ("haugh, meadow") + gwas ("abode"). [29]

  • Darnaway, Moray

Ultimately from ancient Brittonic Taranumagos ("tunder-plain"). [29]

Perhaps from Brittonic *dem- meaning "sure, strong". [31]

Equivalent to Welsh dôl ("haugh, meadow"). [29]

Possibly equivalent to Welsh eglwysfechan ("small church"). [24]

From Din Ediyn, from a Brittonic form meaning "fort of Ediyn" (c.f. Welsh din).

Equivalent to Welsh iselfynydd ("low hill"). [29]

  • Glasgo, Aberdeenshire

See Glasgow, Lanarkshire below. [29]

Equivalent to Welsh glascau ("blue hollow"). [29]

Ebudes in Ptolemy (c. 140 AD), possibly from ancient Brittonic ep- ("a horse"; c.f. Welsh ebol). [33]

Equivalent to Welsh coed ("wood, forest"). [29]

Equivalent to Welsh llanerch ("a glade"). [24]

  • Landrick, Perthshire

See Lanark, Lanarkshire. [34]

  • Lanrick, Perthshire

See Lanark, Lanarkshire. [34]

Equivalent either to Middle Breton louazr or Welsh llawedrawr. [24]

  • Lendrick, Kinross-shire.

See Lanark, Lanarkshire. [34]

  • Lendrick, Perthshire

See Lanark, Lanarkshire. [34]

See Ben Lomond, Stirlingshire. [32]

  • Mayish, Arran

Possibly from Brittonic maɣes ("field"; Welsh maes). [35]

From an element cognate with Welsh migwernydd ("boggy meadow"). [29]

Equivalent to Welsh meddfaen ("meadstone"). [29]

Equivalent to Welsh mig(n) ("bog, swamp") + Mar (a district name). [29]

Equivalent to Welsh mig(n) ("bog, swamp"). [29]

  • Mounth , Perthshire, Angus and Aberdeenshire

Equivalent to Welsh mynydd ("mountain, moor, hill"). [28]

Probably from Common Brittonic *okelon ("a ridge"). [28]

In Gaelic Urchaidh, from ancient Brittonic are-cētia ("on the wood"). [29]

From pant ("a hollow"). [29]

  • Panlathy, Angus

From pant ("a hollow"). [34]

  • Panmure, Angus

Equivalent to Welsh pantmawr ("big hollow"). [29]

  • Pendewen, Angus

First element is possibly equivalent to Welsh pen ("head, top, summit, source"). [34]

Equivalent to Welsh pen-y-cog ("summit of the cuckoo"). [24]

Probably equivalent to Welsh pen ("head, top, summit, source").

  • Pennygant Hill, Roxburghshire

See Pen y Ghent, Yorkshire, England. [24]

Probably equivalent to Welsh perth ("bush").

  • Pinderachy, Anugs

First element is possibly equivalent to Welsh pen ("head, top, summit, source"). [34]

  • Pinnel, Fife

Possibly equivalent to Welsh pen ("head, top, summit, source"). [32]

Possibly equivalent to Welsh pwllrhos ("promontory pool"). [36]

Equivalent to Welsh rhawdtref ("ramparts town"). [29]

  • Urquhart, Ross-shire

Formerly Airdchartdan, equivalent to Middle Welsh ar-cardden ("on the enclosure"). [29]

Probably from Common Brittonic iâla ("unfruitful land, pasture"). [37]

Wales

The vast majority of placenames in Wales (part of the United Kingdom) are either Welsh or anglicized Welsh.

Cornwall

The vast majority of placenames in Cornwall are either Cornish or anglicized Cornish. For examples, see List of places in Cornwall.

Brittany

The vast majority of placenames in the west of Brittany (part of France) are either Breton or derived from Breton. For examples, see Category:Populated places in Brittany.

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 Pierre-Yves Lambert, La Langue gauloise, Editions Errance, 1994, p. 16 - 17
  2. ↑ Pierre-Yves Lambert, La langue gauloise, Editions Errance, 1994, p. 39.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Lambert, p. 37
  4. ↑ Xavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, 2nd edn. (Paris: Errance, 2003), p. 111.
  5. ↑ See Noviomagus and Lexovii.
  6. ↑ Other examples include Ruan (Rothomago 1233 / Rotomagus 5th century), Rom.
  7. ↑ Delamarre 2003, pp. 261-2.
  8. ↑ Bahlow, Hans. 1955. Namenforschung als Wissenschaft. Deutschlands Ortsnamen als Denkmäler keltischer Vorzeit. Frankfurt am Main.
  9. ↑ see Pokorny, IEW
  10. 1 2 Xavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Paris (éditions errance) 2001, p. 221.
  11. ↑ "RIA - Dictionary of Medieval Latin from Celtic Sources".
  12. ↑ Prósper, Blanca María (2002). Lenguas y Religiones Prerromanas del Occidente de la Península Ibérica. Universidad de Salamanca. p. 375. ISBN   978-84-7800-818-6.
  13. ↑ Matasovic, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. p. 28. ISBN   978-90-04-17336-1.
  14. ↑ Matasovic, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. pp. 77–78. ISBN   978-90-04-17336-1.
  15. ↑ Ptolemy II 6.21.
  16. ↑ such as Basle, Latin Basilea, from the personal name Basilius, ultimately of Greek origin,
  17. ↑ such as Bern, founded 1191
  18. ↑ such as Neuchâtel, founded 1011
  19. ↑ Frick has been derived from (a) a Celtic word for "confluence", cognate with fork, (b) an Alemannic personal name Fricco and (c) Latin ferra ricia "iron mine, ironworks".
  20. ↑ Bernhard Maier, Kleines Lexikon der Namen und Wörter keltischen Ursprungs, 2010, p. 51. Julius Pokorny, IEW (1959:325), s.v. "ē̆reb(h)-, ō̆rob(h)- 'dark reddish-brown colour'": "alb.-ligur.-kelt.-germ. eburo- 'rowan, mountain ash, yew, evergreen tree with poisonous needles'."
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 "Survey of English Place-Names". English Place-Name Society.
  22. ↑ Bethany Fox, 'The P-Celtic Place-Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland', The Heroic Age, 10 (2007), http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox.html (appendix at http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox-appendix.html); "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-02-15. Retrieved 2009-11-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  23. 1 2 3 4 Ekwall, Eilert (1922). The Place Names of Lancashire. The University Press. ISBN   9789353897918 . Retrieved 5 February 2024.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 James, Alan. "The Brittonic Language in the Old North" (PDF). Scottish Place Name Society. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
  25. ↑ A. D. Mills, A Dictionary of British Place Names (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), s.v.
  26. ↑ Stenton, Frank Merry (1970). Preparatory to Anglo-Saxon England: The Collected Papers of Frank Merry Stenton. Clarendon. p. 312. ISBN   0198223145 . Retrieved 5 January 2019.
  27. 1 2 3 Mills, AD. Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names. Oxford University Press, 1991.
  28. 1 2 3 Rhys, Guto. "Approaching the Pictish language: historiography, early evidence and the question of Pritenic" (PDF). University of Glasgow. University of Glasgow.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Watson, W.J.; Taylor, Simon (2011). The Celtic Place-Names of Scotland (reprint ed.). Birlinn LTD. p. 387. ISBN   9781906566357.
  30. ↑ Mackenzie, William Cook (1931). Scottish Place-names. K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company. p. 124.
  31. 1 2 MacBain, Alexander (1922). Place names Highlands & Islands of Scotland. p.  156 . Retrieved 20 April 2020.
  32. 1 2 3 Simon, Taylor; Markus, Gilbert (2006). The Place-names of Fife (Illustrated ed.). Shaun Tyas. ISBN   9781900289771.
  33. ↑ Woolf, Alex (2012) Ancient Kindred? Dál Riata and the Cruthin. Academia.edu. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hall, Mark A; Driscoll, Stephen T; Geddess, Jane (11 November 2010). Pictish Progress: New Studies on Northern Britain in the Early Middle Ages. Brill. ISBN   9789004188013 . Retrieved 30 June 2019.
  35. ↑ Mac an Tàilleir, Iain. "Gaelic Place Names (K-O)" (PDF). The Scottish Parliament. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-16. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  36. ↑ Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness (Volume XX ed.). The Society. 1899. p. 330. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  37. ↑ Forsyth, Katherine. "Protecting a Pict?: Further thoughts on the inscribed silver chape from St Ninian's Isle, Shetland. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (2020)" (PDF). University of Glasgow. University of Glasgow. Retrieved 6 March 2021.

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The Gallo-Brittonic languages, also known as the P-Celtic languages, are a subdivision of the Celtic languages of Ancient Gaul and Celtic Britain, which share certain features. Besides common linguistic innovations, speakers of these languages shared cultural features and history. The cultural aspects are commonality of art styles and worship of similar gods. Coinage just prior to the British Roman period was also similar. In Julius Caesar's time, the Atrebates held land on both sides of the English Channel.

Common Brittonic, also known as British, Common Brythonic, or Proto-Brittonic, was a Celtic language spoken in Britain and Brittany.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brigantia (ancient region)</span>

Brigantia is the land inhabited by the Brigantes, a British Celtic tribe which occupied the largest territory in ancient Britain. The territory of Brigantia which now forms Northern England and part of The Midlands covered the majority of the land between the River Tyne and the Humber estuary forming the largest Brythonic Kingdom in ancient Britain. It was recorded by Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD to extend sea to sea, from the Irish sea on the west coast to the North Sea in the east.

Neo-Brittonic, also known as Neo-Brythonic, is a stage of the Insular Celtic Brittonic languages that emerged by the middle of the sixth century CE. Neo-Brittonic languages include Old, Middle and Modern Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, as well as Cumbric.

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