A subcompact car, the EV1 marked the introduction of mass produced and purpose-built battery electric vehicles.[3][4] The conception of the EV1 dates back to 1990 when GM introduced the battery electric "Impact" prototype[5], upon which the design of the production EV1 was largely inspired. The California Air Resources Board enacted a mandate in 1990, stating that the seven leading automakers marketing vehicles in the United States must produce and sell zero-emissions vehicles to maintain access to the California market.
Mass production commenced in 1996. In its initial stages of production, most of them were leased to consumers in California, Arizona, and Georgia. Within a year of the EV1's release, leasing programs were also launched in various other American states. In 1998 GM unveiled a series of adaptations for the EV1, encompassing a series hybrid, a parallel hybrid, a compressed natural gas variant, as well as a four-door model, all of which served as prototypes for possible potential future models. Despite favorable customer reception, GM believed that electric cars occupied an unprofitable niche of the automobile market. The company ultimately crushed most of the cars, and in 2001 GM terminated the EV1 program, disregarding protests from customers.
Since its demise, the EV1's cancellation has remained a subject of dispute and controversy. Electric car enthusiasts, environmental interest groups, and former EV1 lessees have accused the company of self-sabotaging its electric car program to avoid potential losses in spare parts sales,[note 1] while also blaming the oil industry for conspiring to keep electric cars off the road.
History
In contrast to numerous electric vehicles of its time, the EV1 was a purpose-built electric vehicle, not a conversion of another car.[6][7] This factor contributed to its significant development cost of US$350 million, as well as its high production costs.[8][9] Kenneth Baker, a General Motors engineer, served as the lead engineer for the EV1 program, having previously served as such for the unsuccessful Chevrolet Electrovette program in the 1970s.[10][11][12]
Origins
The 1990 GM Impact electric concept car
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the automobile industry saw little progress in electric car development; over 80 percent of vehicles produced in the United States featured V8 engines.[9][13] But shifts in federal and state regulations began to influence this. The enactment of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendment and the 1992 Energy Policy Act, alongside the introduction of new transportation emissions regulations by the California Air Resources Board, contributed to a revived interest in electric vehicles in the United States.[9]
In January 1990 GM chairmanRoger Smith demonstrated the Impact, a battery electricconcept car, at the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show. GM aimed for a production rate of 100,000 cars per year, as opposed to the initially proposed 20,000.[14] Developed by the electric vehicle company AeroVironment, the Impact drew upon design insights acquired from GM's participation in the 1987 World Solar Challenge. This challenge was a trans-Australia race for solar vehicles, in which the company's Sunraycer was victorious.[15][16][17]Alan Cocconi of AC Propulsion designed and built the original drive system electronics for the Impact, and the design was later refined by Hughes Electronics.[18][19][20] The car was powered by 32 lead–acid rechargeable batteries.[21] On April 18, 1990 Smith announced that the Impact would become a production vehicle with a goal of 25,000 vehicles.[22][23] The Impact achieved a top speed of 183mph (295km/h).[24]
Impressed by the feasibility of the Impact and spurred by GM's commitment to produce a minimum of 5,000 units, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) initiated a significant environmental effort in 1990.[25] They mandated that each of the seven largest automakers in the U.S., with GM being the largest among them, must ensure that two percent of their fleet would be emission-free by 1998,[10] increasing to five percent by 2001 and ten percent by 2003, based on consumer demand.[26] The board clarified that the mandate aimed to address California's severe air pollution issue, which, at that time, exceeded the combined pollution levels of the other 49 states.[27] Other participants of the former American Automobile Manufacturers Association, including Toyota, Nissan, and Honda, also individually developed prototype zero-emissions vehicles in response to the new mandate.[28][29]
In 1994, GM initiated "PrEView", a program in which fifty handcrafted Impact electric cars would be loaned to drivers for durations of one to two weeks, with the stipulation that their feedback and experiences would be documented.[30][31] Volunteers were required to possess a garage suitable for the installation of a high-current charging unit by an electric company.[32] Driver response to the cars was favorable, as were reviews by the automotive press. According to Motor Trend, the Impact "is precisely one of those occasions where GM proves beyond any doubt that it knows how to build fantastic automobiles. This is the world's only electric vehicle that drives like a real car." Automobile called the car's ride and handling "amazing", praising its "smooth delivery of power".[33] That year, a modified Impact set a land speed record for production electric vehicles of 183mph (295km/h).[34] Despite the good reception, as highlighted in a front-page feature in The New York Times, GM appeared to be less than enthusiastic about the prospect of having created a thriving electric car:
General Motors is preparing to put its electric vehicle act on the road, and planning for a flop. With pride and pessimism, the company, the furthest along of the Big Three in designing a mass-market electric car, says that in the face of a California law that requires that [two] percent of new cars be "zero emission" vehicles beginning in 1997, it has done its best but that the vehicle has come up short.... Now it hopes that lawmakers and regulators will agree with it and postpone or scrap the deadline.[32]
According to the report, GM viewed the PrEView program as a failure, leading them to believe that the electric car was not yet viable, and that the CARB regulations should be removed. Dennis Minano, GM's vice president for Energy and Environment, questioned whether consumers desired electric vehicles. Robert James Eaton, chairman of Chrysler, also doubted the readiness of mass produced for electric cars, stating in 1994 that "if the law is there, we'll meet it... at this point of time, nobody can forecast that we can make an electric car". These automakers' skepticism was criticized by Thomas C. Jorling, the Commissioner of Environmental Conservation for New York State, which had adopted the California emission program. According to Jorling, consumers had shown significant interest in electric cars. Jorling suggested that automakers were hesitant to transition from internal combustion engine technology due to their massive investments.[32]
First generation
The rear view of the EV1
Following the PrEView initiative, work on the GM electric car program persisted. While the original fifty Impact cars were destroyed after testing was finished, the design had evolved into the GM EV1 by 1996.[21][35] The first generation, often referred to as the "Gen I", would be powered by lead–acid batteries and had a stated range of 70 to 100 miles.[36] A production run of 660 vehicles ensued,[37] with paint options including dark green, red, and silver.[38] The vehicles were offered through a leasing arrangement, explicitly prohibiting the option to buy under a contractual provision (with a suggested retail price listed at $34,000).[39] Saturn assumed responsibility for leasing and maintenance of the EV1.[40] Analysts projected a potential market ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 cars annually.[8]
Similar to the PrEView program, lessees were pre-screened by GM, with only residents of Southern California and Arizona initially eligible for participation.[41][42] Leasing rates for the EV1 ranged from $399 to $549 a month.[43] The car's debut was marked by a significant media event, featuring an US$8 million promotional campaign incorporating prime-time TV commercials, billboards, a dedicated website, and an appearance at the premiere of the Sylvester Stallone film Daylight. Among the initial lessees were notable figures such as celebrities, executives, and politicians. At the release event, 40 EV1 leases were signed, with GM anticipating leasing 100 cars by year's end. Deliveries began on December 5, 1996.[39] In the first year on the market, GM leased just 288 cars.[44] But in 1999 Ken Stewart, the brand manager for the EV1 program, characterized the feedback from the car's drivers as "wonderfully-maniacal loyalty".[45][46]
Joe Kennedy, Saturn's vice president of marketing at GM, acknowledged concerns regarding the EV1's price, the outdated lead–acid battery technology, and the car's restricted range, stating, "Let us not forget that technology starts small and grows slowly before technology improves and costs go down".[39] Some groups opposing taxation expressed disapproval of the exemptions and tax credits given to EV1 lessees, arguing it amounted to government-subsidized driving for affluent individuals.[39] Certain groups, such as the fake consumer organization "Californians Against Utility Company Abuse", which opposed the use of taxpayer funds for public EV charging stations, were accused of being funded by oil companies with interests in maintaining the dominance of gasoline cars.[47]
Marvin Rush, a cinematographer for the TV series Star Trek: Voyager, noticed that GM was not adequately promoting the EV1. Concerned, he personally invested $20,000 to create and broadcast four unofficial radio commercials for the car. Although GM initially opposed this initiative, their stance shifted later on. They decided to endorse the commercials and reimburse Rush for his expenses. In 1997 the company allocated US$10 million for EV1 advertising and pledged to raise this amount by an additional US$5 million the next year.[48]
Badging of an EV1
Second generation
In 1998 for the 1999 model year GM released a second iteration of the EV1. Noteworthy improvements included lower production costs, quieter operation, extensive weight reduction, and the advent of a nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH).[49] The Gen II models were released with a 60 amp-hour, 312-volt (18.7kWh, 67.3MJ) Panasonic lead–acid battery pack.[50] Subsequent models featured an Ovonics NiMH battery, rated at 77 Ah with 343volts (26.4kWh, 95.0MJ).[51] Cars with the lead–acid pack had a range of 80 to 100 miles (130 to 160km),[52] while the NiMH cars could travel 120 to 140 miles (190 to 230km) between charges.[16] The second generation EV1 leasing program expanded to several other American cities, with monthly payments ranging from $349 to $574.[53] A total of 457 second generation GM EV1s were produced by the company and leased to customers.[54][55]
On March 2, 2000 GM issued a recall for 450 first generation EV1s. The automaker had determined that a faulty charge port cable could eventually build up enough heat to catch on fire.[56] Sixteen "thermal incidents" were reported, including at least one fire that resulted in the destruction of a charging vehicle.[57] The recall did not affect second generation EV1s.[58]
Costs
GM established lease payments for the EV1 based on an initial vehicle price of US$33,995.[59] Lease payments varied from approximately $299 to $574 per month.[60] An industry official suggested that each EV1 cost the company around US$80,000, including research, development and other associated costs;[61] other estimates placed the vehicle's actual cost as high as $100,000.[59] GM invested slightly less than $500million into the EV1 and electric vehicle-related technologies,[62] and over $1 billion in total.[63][64]
To enhance its efficiency, extensive wind-tunnel testing was conducted on the EV1, and GM additionally implemented partial fender skirts on the rear wheelhouses. The rear wheels are 9 inches (230mm) closer together than the front wheels, thereby creating the "teardrop" shape. These factors resulted in a very low drag coefficient ofCd=0.19 and a drag area ofCdA=3.95sqft (0.367m2).[68][69][70][71] Its design incorporated super-light magnesium alloywheels and self-sealing, low-rolling resistance tires developed by Michelin rounded out the EV1's good efficiency characteristics.[72][30] These tires, mounted on the lightest fourteen-inch wheels ever used, are inflated to 50 pounds per square inch (psi), compared to the standard 35 psi for normal tires. The special rubber compound utilized in these tires, along with their hardness, contributed to its low rolling resistance.[68]
Its recyclable aluminum structure was the world's lightest, weighing 290 pounds (130kg).[73] Thus it constituted 10 percent of its overall weight, in comparison to the usual 20 percent. The EV1 features regenerative braking, a system in which applying the brakes turns the drive motor into a generator. This process not only slows down the vehicle but also captures its kinetic energy, returning it to the battery for reuse. To save weight and maximize performance, GM designed the EV1 as a subcompact two-seater vehicle.[74][75][76] Efforts to minimize weight extended to most of the components of the car, including the incorporation of magnesium in the frames of the seats.[76] In addition, the power-assisted anti-lock brakes are electrically activated. The front disc brakes operate on an electro-hydraulic system. The rear drums represent an industry first, being fully electric, which eliminates the requirement for hydraulic lines or parking brake cables.[68]
Traditionally vehicles use heat produced by the engine to heat the passenger compartment. But since electric vehicles generate minimal waste heat, an alternative solution had to be conceived. GM opted for a heat pump to regulate the temperature inside the EV1, consuming a third of the energy required by a traditional unit for both cooling and heating. Nevertheless the system effectively warmed passengers only when temperatures exceed 30°F (−1°C). To address colder climates, upcoming electric vehicles were anticipated to incorporate heat pumps alongside compact fuel-fired heaters.[68]
Drivetrain and battery
An EV1 charging at the BART’s Walnut Creek Station, California on August 11, 2002
The electric motor in the EV1 operated on a 3-phase AC induction system, generating 137 brake horsepower (102kW) at 7,000 revolutions per minute (RPMs).[74][77] The EV1 could maintain its full torque capacity across its entire power range, delivering 110 pound-feet (150N⋅m) of torque from 0 to 7,000 RPMs.[78][79] Power was transmitted to the front wheels through an integrated single-speed reductiontransmission.[80][81][82]
The first generation EV1 models featured lead–acid batteries weighing 1,175 pounds (533kg).[83][84][85] These batteries, initially supplied by GM's Delco Remy Division, were rated at 53amp-hours at 312volts (16.5kWh), offering an initial range of 60 miles (97km) per charge.[86][87][38] In 1999 the second generation EV1 cars adopted a new set of lead–acid batteries from the Japanese electronics company Panasonic, increasing the weight to 1,310 pounds (590kg).[88][89] The batteries were rated at 60amp-hours at 312volts (18.7kWh), extending the EV1's range to 90 miles (145km).[90] Shortly after the introduction of the second generation cars, the planned nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) Ovonics battery pack, developed under the Delco Remy organization, commenced production.[91][92][93] This pack made the car's curb weight2,908 pounds (1,319kg).[94] The NiMH batteries were rated at 77amp-hours at 343volts (26.4kWh), providing a range of 160 miles (257 km) per charge, doubling the range of the original first generation cars.[93][95] Charging the NiMH-equipped cars to full capacity could take six to eight hours.[96]
The EV1 used the Magne Chargeinductive charging paddle, manufactured by Delco Electronics, a subsidiary of GM.[97][98] This paddle was inserted into a slot located between the EV1's headlights.[89] The wireless charging technology ensured that no direct connection was required, although there were rare instances of fires starting at the charge port.[99][100] For fast recharging of the vehicle, a home charger provided by GM was necessary.[101] In addition to the fast charger, GM offered a 120-volt AC convenience charger for the lead–acid battery that could be utilized with any standard North American power socket for slower charging of the battery pack.[102]
Conversions
GM revealed a family of alternative fuelprototype models at the 1998 Detroit Auto Show.[103] Among these, the compressed natural gas variant was the only model in this family that was not electric, and it was a conversion of the standard two–seat EV1 platform. It featured a 1.0-liter turbocharged engine, and its advertised fuel efficiency was rated at 60 miles per US gallon (3.9L/100km; 72mpg‑imp).[104] The series hybrid prototype featured a auxiliary power unit (APU) housing a gas turbine engine situated in the trunk.[105] Supplied by Williams International, an American manufacturing company founded by Sam B. Williams,[106] the unit comprised a lightweight gas turbine and a high-speed permanent magnet AC generator, the former of which primarily charged the vehicle's batteries.[104][107] The Williams APU had the capability to operate on either compressed natural gas or gasoline. According to GM's assertions, the vehicle could attain 60 miles per US gallon (3.9L/100km; 72mpg‑imp) when running on the latter, offering a total range of 390 miles (630km). Conversely when operating solely in electric mode, it was estimated to achieve a range of 40 miles (64km).[108] The parallel hybrid variant featured a 1.3-liter Isuzuturbocharged, direct injection diesel engine, delivering 75hp (56kW).[109] GM also introduced a fuel cell variant; its system comprised a fuel processor, an expander/compressor, and a fuel cell stack.[109] Another noteworthy development was the unveiling of a four-passenger variant of the EV1, extended in length by 19 inches (480mm).[110][111]
Demise
A brief overview of the background, production, design, and demise of the General Motors EV1, with a picture of one on the right taken at the Grand Canyon National Park
Despite favorable customer reception, GM believed that electric cars occupied an unprofitable niche of the automobile market.[112] The company ended production of the EV1 in 1999, after 1,117 examples were produced over its tenure of under three years.[113][114] On February 7, 2002 Ken Stewart, the brand manager of GM Advanced Technology Vehicles, informed lessees that GM would be recalling the cars from the road,[115] which contradicted a previous statement indicating that GM had no plans to withdraw cars from customers.[116] The EV1 program was terminated in late 2003 under the leadership of then-GM CEORick Wagoner.[117][118]
58 EV1 drivers submitted letters along with deposit checks to GM, seeking lease extensions with no financial burden on the automaker. These drivers indicated their willingness to cover maintenance and repair expenses for the EV1, while granting GM the authority to terminate the lease in case of costly repairs. Despite this proposal, in June 2002 GM declined the offer and returned the checks, totalling over US$22,000.[115][119] In November 2003 GM initiated the retrieval of the vehicles;[120] approximately forty units were donated to museums and educational establishments, albeit with deactivated power systems intended to prevent future operation.[121][122] However, most of the vehicles were dispatched to car crushing facilities for demolition.[123][124]
In 2003 Peter Horton, an actor reporting for the Los Angeles Times, sought to lease an EV1 from GM but was informed that he "was welcome to join their waiting list [of a few thousand] along with [an undisclosed number of] others for an indefinite period of time, but his chances of getting a car were slim".[26] In March 2005 GM spokesman Dave Barthmuss discussed the EV1 with The Washington Post, noting that "There [was] an extremely passionate, enthusiastic and loyal following for this particular vehicle[...] There simply [were not] enough of them at any given time to make a viable business proposition for GM to pursue long term".[125]
By the end of August 2004 GM had reclaimed all leased EV1s from their lessees, resulting in the absence of any EV1s on the road. However, one EV1 was showcased at the Main Street in Motion exhibit at Epcot in Walt Disney World, located in Lake Buena Vista, Florida.[123]
Five EV1s were reported to be donated to China in 1998, specifically to the National Electric Vehicle Experimental & Demonstration Area (NEVEDA), a government research institute in Shantou. By 2018, only two EV1s were seen at the facility, while the whereabouts of the three other EV1s were unknown.[126]
Reaction and image
Posters on a Toyota RAV4 EV protesting against the crushing of the EV1
Since its demise and destruction, GM's decision to cancel the EV1 has generated dispute and controversy.[127][128] The American Smithsonian Magazine described the EV1 as "not technically a failure",[129] whereas the Australian Financial Review newspaper contended that while "successful, [the EV1] was doomed to fail".[130] These opinions were due to the economic infeasibility of the EV1, and GM has been acknowledged for discontinuing the EV1, with the newspaper Automotive News asserting that this decision helped GM avoid decades of losses.[131] But despite this praise, many criticized GM's decision to phase out the EV1.[45][125][132] Electric car enthusiasts, environmental interest groups, and former EV1 lessees have accused the company of self-sabotaging its electric car program to avoid potential losses in spare parts sales, while also blaming the oil industry for conspiring to keep electric cars off the road.[133][134]
As car sales declined later in the decade amid the onset of global oil and financial crises, perspectives on the EV1 program underwent a shift. In 2006 Wagoner admitted that his decision to discontinue the EV1 electric-car program and neglect hybrid development was his biggest regret during his tenure at GM. He emphasized that while it didn't directly impact profitability, it did tarnish the company's image.[135] Wagoner reiterated this sentiment in a National Public Radio (NPR) interview following the December 2008 Senate hearings on the U.S. auto industry bailout request.[136] In the March 13, 2007 issue of Newsweek, "GM R&D chief Larry Burns ... now wishes GM hadn't killed the plug-in hybrid EV1 prototype his engineers had on the road a decade ago: 'If we could turn back the hands of time,' says Burns, 'we could have had the [Chevrolet] Volt ten years earlier'",[137] alluding to the Volt considered as the indirect successor to the EV1.[138]
Legacy and post-demise
EV1 (right) next to an AC Propulsion tzero (left). Three of the latter were built, but only two survived. Alan Cocconi was the conceiver of both cars.
The demise of the EV1 inspired the conception of the American battery electric carmaker Tesla Motors. Appalled by GM's decision to discontinue and destroy it, Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning established Tesla Motors in July 2003. Just half a year later, Elon Musk provided substantial funding and assumed the role of chairman.[141] Musk stated in a 2017 Twitter post that "Since big car companies were killing their EV programs, the only chance was to create an EV company, even though it was almost certain to fail". He stated in a subsequent tweet that it had "nothing to do with government incentives or making money. I thought there was a 90probability of losing it all (almost did many times), but it was the only chance".[142][note 2]
Research showed that manufacturers were at least a decade behind in terms of electric vehicle adoption, technology, and infrastructure. While EV1 is considered ahead of its time, it could also be seen as a product of its era and the technologies available at that time. Lead–acid and NiMH batteries had been around for decades, aerodynamics were well understood, and electric motors were already in widespread use.[16]
As part of GM's vehicle electrification strategy,[143] and following the introduction of the Chevrolet Voltplug-in hybrid vehicle to the American market in late 2010, the Chevrolet Spark EV was launched in June 2013. It marked GM's first all-electric passenger car release in the United States since the discontinuation of the EV1 in 1999.[144] The Spark EV was phased out in December 2016, coinciding with the introduction of the Bolt by Chevrolet.[145]
In popular media
An EV1 at a promotional event for the "Who Killed The Electric Car?" film
The EV1's demise is explored in the 2006 documentary film titled Who Killed the Electric Car?.[146][147] The film covers the history of the electric car, its modern development, and its commercialization. It addresses future concerns regarding air pollution, oil dependency, and climate change. The documentary explores various factors contributing to the EV1's cancellation, including the CARB's decision to reverse the mandate after pressure and lawsuits from automobile manufacturers, influence from the oil industry, anticipation surrounding a future hydrogen car, and the perfidy of the George W. Bush administration. The film extensively covers GM's efforts to convince California that there was no demand for their product, followed by their decision to repossess and dispose of nearly every EV1 manufactured.[148]
The news magazine Time named the EV1 as one of the "50 Worst Cars of All Time". The magazine lauded its design and engineering, stating that it "was a marvel of engineering [and was] absolutely the best electric vehicle anyone had ever seen", but criticized it for being very expensive to build, which led GM executives to terminating the program. They described GM as the company that "killed the electric car".[149]
↑ Stevenson, Richard W. (1990-01-04). "G.M. Displays the Impact, An Advanced Electric Car". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. General Motors had high hopes that the car could be the first to bridge the gap between limited-production electrical vehicles... and mass-produced autos. 'It is producable'. most comfortable with 100,000 cars a year, not 20,000. 'It's a total system approach' said John S. Zwerner, a top engineer at General Motors. 'Every detail has been important.'
↑ Parrish, Michael (1994-04-14). "Trying to Pull the Plug: Big Oil Companies Sponsor Efforts to Curtail Electric, Natural Gas Cars". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2020-01-31. Retrieved 2024-03-28. big oil companies have been largely silent. But now the companies have found their voice—or, more accurately, the voice of others—by quietly bankrolling what on its face appears to be a grass-roots campaign against $600 million in proposed utility investments in alternative-vehicle support systems. A new group called Californians Against Utility Company Abuse—run by Woodward & McDowell, a high-powered Burlingame, Calif.-based public relations firm—gathered petitions and demonstrated Wednesday in front of a regional office of Southern California Gas Co. The group also recently mailed a letter to 200,000 utility ratepayers statewide. It does not mention oil industry support in its literature.
↑ "GM: Hybrids, Fuel Cells, and the Lawyers"(PDF). Convention and Tradeshow News. 2001-12-12. p.12. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2019-02-24. 'Nowhere in this plan am I going out and taking cars off the road from customers,' he says, 'without the customer requesting it first.'
↑ Brinkman, Norman; Eberle, Ulrich; Formanski, Volker; Grebe, Uwe-Dieter; Matthe, Roland (2012-04-15). "Vehicle Electrification – Quo Vadis". VDI. Archived from the original on 2014-12-22. Retrieved 2013-04-27.
Babu, A. K. Electric & Hybrid Vehicles. India: Khanna Publishing House. ISBN978-9-3861-7371-3.
Blazev, Anco S. (2021) [2014]. Power Generation and the Environment. United Kingdom: River Publishers. ISBN978-8-7702-2310-2.
Brooke, Lindsay (2011). Chevrolet Volt: Development Story of the Pioneering Electrified Vehicle. United States: SAE International. ISBN978-0-7680-5783-6.
Chau, K. T. (2015). Electric Vehicle Machines and Drives: Design, Analysis and Application. Germany: Wiley. ISBN978-1-1187-5261-6.
Cowan, Robin; Hultén, Staffan (2000). Electric Vehicles: Socio-economic Prospects and Technological Challenges. United Kingdom: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN978-0-7546-1399-2.
Dobrev, Ivelin (2020). Tesla's Current State and Brand Potential. How to Derive a Brand Meaning and Create a Future that Inspires. Germany: Science Factory. ISBN978-3-9648-7261-6.
Eisler, Matthew N. (2022). Age of Auto Electric: Environment, Energy, and the Quest for the Sustainable Car. United Kingdom: MIT Press. ISBN978-0-2623-7203-9.
Fessler, David C. (2019) [2018]. The Energy Disruption Triangle: Three Sectors That Will Change How We Generate, Use, and Store Energy. United Kingdom: Wiley. ISBN978-1-1193-4711-8.
Fialka, John J. (2015). Car Wars: The Rise, the Fall, and the Resurgence of the Electric Car. United States: St. Martin's Publishing Group. ISBN978-1-4668-4960-0.
Graham, John D. (2021). The Global Rise of the Modern Plug-In Electric Vehicle: Public Policy, Innovation and Strategy. United Kingdom: Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN978-1-8008-8013-9.
Hayes, John G.; Goodarzi, Gordon Abas (2018) [2017]. Electric Powertrain. United Kingdom: Wiley. ISBN978-1-1190-6364-3.
Kimble, David (2015). David Kimble's Cutaways: The Techniques and the Stories Behind the Art. United States: CarTech. ISBN978-1-6132-5173-7.
Mi, Chris; Masrur, M. Abul (2017) [2011]. Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives. Germany: Wiley. ISBN978-1-1189-7053-9.
Nilsson, Måns (2012). Paving the Road to Sustainable Transport: Governance and Innovation in Low-carbon Vehicles. United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN978-0-4156-8360-9.
Porter, Richard (2014). Top Gear; Epic Failures: 50 Great Motoring Cock-Ups. United Kingdom: BBC Books. ISBN978-1-8499-0820-7.
Shnayerson, Michael (1996). The Car that Could: The Inside Story of GM's Revolutionary Electric Vehicle. United States: Random House. ISBN978-0-6794-2105-4.
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General Motors Company (GM) is an American multinational automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Detroit, Michigan, United States. The company is most known for owning and manufacturing four automobile brands: Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, and Cadillac. By total sales, it has continuously been the largest automaker in the United States, and was the largest in the world for 77 years before losing the top spot to Toyota in 2008.
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Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 American documentary film directed by Chris Paine that explores the creation, limited commercialization and subsequent destruction of the battery electric vehicle in the United States, specifically the General Motors EV1 of the mid-1990s. The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers, the oil industry, the federal government of the United States, the California government, batteries, hydrogen vehicles and consumers in limiting the development and adoption of this technology.
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Magne Charge is an obsolete inductive charging system used to charge battery electric vehicles (BEVs).
The history of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) spans a little more than a century, but most of the significant commercial developments have taken place after 2002. The revival of interest in this automotive technology together with all-electric cars is due to advances in battery and power management technologies, and concerns about increasingly volatile oil prices and supply disruption, and also the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Between 2003 and 2010 most PHEVs on the roads were conversions of production hybrid electric vehicles, and the most prominent PHEVs were aftermarket conversions of 2004 or later Toyota Prius, which have had plug-in charging and more lead–acid batteries added and their electric-only range extended.
Voltec, formerly known as E-Flex, is a General Motors powertrain released in November 2010. The Voltec architecture is primarily a plug-in capable, battery-dominant electric vehicle with additional fossil fuel powered series and parallel hybrid capabilities.
Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent is a measure of the average distance traveled per unit of energy consumed. MPGe is used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to compare energy consumption of alternative fuel vehicles, plug-in electric vehicles and other advanced technology vehicles with the energy consumption of conventional internal combustion vehicles rated in miles per U.S. gallon.
The Cadillac ELR is a two-door, four-passenger luxury plug-in hybrid compact coupé manufactured and marketed by Cadillac for model years (MY) 2014 and 2016 – with a hiatus for MY 2015. Using a retuned version of the Chevrolet Volt's Voltec EREV drivetrain, the ELR's lithium-ion battery pack delivered an all-electric range of 37–39 miles (60–63 km) and a top speed of 106 mph (171 km/h).
The patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries refers to allegations that corporate interests have used the patent system to prevent the commercialization of nickel metal hydride (NiMH) battery technology. Nickel metal hydride battery technology was considered important to the development of battery electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) before the technology for lithium-ion battery packs became a viable replacement.
Range anxiety is the driver's fear that a vehicle has insufficient energy storage to cover the road distance needed to reach its intended destination, and would thus strand the vehicle's occupants mid-way. The term, which is now primarily used in reference to the practical driving range of battery electric vehicles (BEVs), is considered to be one of the major psychological barriers to large-scale public adoption of electric cars.
The second generation Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric compact car that was produced by General Motors under the Chevrolet brand. It debuted at the 2015 North American International Auto Show to replace the original Volt, on sale since 2010. Retail deliveries as a 2016 model year began in October 2015 in the U.S. and Canada, and it was released in Mexico in December 2015. Availability of the 2016 model was limited to California and the other 10 states that follow California's zero emission vehicle regulations. It went on sale as a 2017 model year in the rest of the U.S. in February 2016. Volt production ended on February 15, 2019.
The Chevrolet Volt is a compact car that was produced by General Motors. The first generation of the Chevrolet Volt, it was manufactured at the Detroit facility until it was succeeded by the second and final generation of the Volt in 2015. It is a five-door liftback with a range-extending generator.
The GM BEV2 platform is an automotive platform made by General Motors designed specifically for small electric vehicles. Multiple divisions of the LG Corporation have been instrumental in construction in addition to GM's contributions to the platform.
A compliance car is an alternative fuel vehicle that is explicitly designed to meet tightening government regulations for low-emission vehicle sales, while the automobile manufacturer restricts sales to specific jurisdictions to meet the rules, or limits production, or both.
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