List of extinction events

Last updated

This is a list of extinction events , both mass and minor: [1]

  "Big Five" major extinction events (see graphic)
Extinction intensity.svg
Marine extinction intensity during the Phanerozoic
%
Millions of years ago
(H)
Cap
Extinction intensity.svg
The blue graph shows the apparent percentage (not the absolute number) of marine animal genera becoming extinct during any given time interval. It does not represent all marine species, just those that are readily fossilized. The labels of the traditional "Big Five" extinction events and the more recently recognised Capitanian mass extinction event are clickable links; see Extinction event for more details. (source and image info)
Period or supereonExtinctionDateProbable causes [2]
Quaternary Holocene extinction c. 10,000 BC – Ongoing Humans [3]
Quaternary extinction event 640,000, 74,000, and
13,000 years ago		Unknown; may include climate changes, massive volcanic eruptions and Humans (largely by human overhunting) [4] [5] [6]
Neogene Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary extinction 2 MaPossible causes include a supernova [7] [8] or the Eltanin impact [9] [10]
Middle Miocene disruption 14.5 Ma Climate change due to change of ocean circulation patterns. Milankovitch cycles may have also contributed [11]
Paleogene Eocene–Oligocene extinction event 33.9 MaMultiple causes including global cooling, polar glaciation, falling sea levels, and the Popigai impactor [12]
Cretaceous Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 Ma Chicxulub impactor; the volcanism which resulted in the formation of the Deccan Traps may have contributed. [13]
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event 94 MaMost likely underwater volcanism associated with the Caribbean large igneous province, which would have caused global warming and acidic oceans [14]
Aptian extinction 117 MaUnknown, but may be due to volcanism of the Rajmahal Traps [15]
Jurassic End-Jurassic (Tithonian) 145 MaNo longer regarded as a major extinction but rather a series of lesser events due to bolide impacts, eruptions of flood basalts, climate change and disruptions to oceanic systems [16]
Pliensbachian-Toarcian extinction (Toarcian turnover)186-178 MaFormation of the Karoo-Ferrar Igneous Provinces [17]
Triassic Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201 MaPossible causes include gradual climate changes, volcanism from the Central Atlantic magmatic province [18] or an impactor [19]
Carnian Pluvial Event 230 Ma Wrangellia flood basalts, [20] or the uplift of the Cimmerian orogeny
Olenekian-Anisian boundary event247 MaOcean acidification [21]
Smithian-Spathian boundary event 249 MaLate eruptions of the Siberian Traps
Griesbachian-Dienerian boundary-event252Late eruptions of the Siberian Traps [22]
Permian Permian–Triassic extinction event 252 MaLarge igneous province (LIP) eruptions [23] from the Siberian Traps, [24] an impact event (the Wilkes Land Crater), [25] an Anoxic event, [26] an Ice age, [27] or other possible causes
End-Capitanian extinction event 260 MaVolcanism from the Emeishan Traps, [28] resulting in global cooling and other effects
Olson's Extinction 270 MaUnknown. Possibly a change in climate.
Carboniferous Carboniferous rainforest collapse 305 MaPossiblities include a series of rapid changes in climate, or volcanism of the Skagerrak-Centered Large Igneous Province [29]
Serpukhovian extinction ~ 325 MaOnset of the Late Paleozoic icehouse
Devonian Hangenberg event 359 MaAnoxia, possibly related to the Famennian glaciation or volcanic activity, Supernova [30]
Late Devonian extinction (Kellwasser event)372 Ma Viluy Traps; [31] Woodleigh Impactor? [2]
Taghanic Event ~384 MaAnoxia
Kačák Event ~388 MaAnoxia
Silurian Lau event 420 MaChanges in sea level and chemistry? [32]
Mulde event 424 MaGlobal drop in sea level? [33]
Ireviken event 428 MaDeep-ocean anoxia; [34] Milankovitch cycles? [35]
Ordovician Late Ordovician mass extinction 445-444 MaGlobal cooling and sea level drop, and/or global warming related to volcanism and anoxia [36]
Cambrian Cambrian–Ordovician extinction event 488 Ma Kalkarindji Large Igneous Province? [37]
Dresbachian extinction event 502 Ma
End-Botomian extinction event 517 Ma
Precambrian End-Ediacaran extinction 542 Ma Anoxic event [38]
Great Oxygenation Event 2400 MaRising oxygen levels in the atmosphere due to the development of photosynthesis as well as possible Snowball Earth event. (see: Huronian glaciation.)

Timeline

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extinction event</span> Widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth

An extinction event is a widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth. Such an event is identified by a sharp fall in the diversity and abundance of multicellular organisms. It occurs when the rate of extinction increases with respect to the background extinction rate and the rate of speciation. Estimates of the number of major mass extinctions in the last 540 million years range from as few as five to more than twenty. These differences stem from disagreement as to what constitutes a "major" extinction event, and the data chosen to measure past diversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Permian–Triassic extinction event</span> Earths most severe extinction event

Approximately 251.9 million years ago, the Permian–Triassicextinction event forms the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geologic periods, and with them the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras respectively. It is the Earth's most severe known extinction event, with the extinction of 57% of biological families, 83% of genera, 81% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. It is also the largest known mass extinction of insects. It is the largest of the "Big Five" mass extinctions of the Phanerozoic. There is evidence for one to three distinct pulses, or phases, of extinction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triassic</span> First period of the Mesozoic Era 252–201 million years ago

The Triassic is a geologic period and system which spans 50.5 million years from the end of the Permian Period 251.902 million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.4 Mya. The Triassic is the first and shortest period of the Mesozoic Era. Both the start and end of the period are marked by major extinction events. The Triassic Period is subdivided into three epochs: Early Triassic, Middle Triassic and Late Triassic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triassic–Jurassic extinction event</span> Mass extinction ending the Triassic period

The Triassic–Jurassic (Tr-J) extinction event (TJME), often called the end-Triassic extinction, was a Mesozoic extinction event that marks the boundary between the Triassic and Jurassic periods, 201.4 million years ago, and is one of the top five major extinction events of the Phanerozoic eon, profoundly affecting life on land and in the oceans. In the seas, the entire class of conodonts and 23–34% of marine genera disappeared. On land, all archosauromorphs other than crocodylomorphs, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs became extinct; some of the groups which died out were previously abundant, such as aetosaurs, phytosaurs, and rauisuchids. Some remaining non-mammalian therapsids and many of the large temnospondyl amphibians had become extinct prior to the Jurassic as well. However, there is still much uncertainty regarding a connection between the Tr-J boundary and terrestrial vertebrates, due to a lack of terrestrial fossils from the Rhaetian (latest) stage of the Triassic. What was left fairly untouched were plants, crocodylomorphs, dinosaurs, pterosaurs and mammals; this allowed the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and crocodylomorphs to become the dominant land animals for the next 135 million years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Late Ordovician mass extinction</span> Extinction event around 444 million years ago

The Late Ordovician mass extinction (LOME), sometimes known as the end-Ordovician mass extinction or the Ordovician-Silurian extinction, is the first of the "big five" major mass extinction events in Earth's history, occurring roughly 445 million years ago (Ma). It is often considered to be the second-largest known extinction event, in terms of the percentage of genera that became extinct. Extinction was global during this interval, eliminating 49–60% of marine genera and nearly 85% of marine species. Under most tabulations, only the Permian-Triassic mass extinction exceeds the Late Ordovician mass extinction in biodiversity loss. The extinction event abruptly affected all major taxonomic groups and caused the disappearance of one third of all brachiopod and bryozoan families, as well as numerous groups of conodonts, trilobites, echinoderms, corals, bivalves, and graptolites. Despite its taxonomic severity, the Late Ordovician mass extinction did not produce major changes to ecosystem structures compared to other mass extinctions, nor did it lead to any particular morphological innovations. Diversity gradually recovered to pre-extinction levels over the first 5 million years of the Silurian period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siberian Traps</span> Large region of volcanic rock in Russia

The Siberian Traps is a large region of volcanic rock, known as a large igneous province, in Siberia, Russia. The massive eruptive event that formed the traps is one of the largest known volcanic events in the last 500 million years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Late Devonian extinction</span> One of the five most severe extinction events in the history of the Earths biota

The Late Devonian extinction consisted of several extinction events in the Late Devonian Epoch, which collectively represent one of the five largest mass extinction events in the history of life on Earth. The term primarily refers to a major extinction, the Kellwasser event, also known as the Frasnian-Famennian extinction, which occurred around 372 million years ago, at the boundary between the Frasnian stage and the Famennian stage, the last stage in the Devonian Period. Overall, 19% of all families and 50% of all genera became extinct. A second mass extinction called the Hangenberg event, also known as the end-Devonian extinction, occurred 359 million years ago, bringing an end to the Famennian and Devonian, as the world transitioned into the Carboniferous Period.

The Guadalupian is the second and middle series/epoch of the Permian. The Guadalupian was preceded by the Cisuralian and followed by the Lopingian. It is named after the Guadalupe Mountains of New Mexico and Texas, and dates between 272.95 ± 0.5 – 259.1 ± 0.4 Mya. The series saw the rise of the therapsids, a minor extinction event called Olson's Extinction and a significant mass extinction called the end-Capitanian extinction event. The Guadalupian was previously known as the Middle Permian.

Oceanic anoxic events or anoxic events (anoxia conditions) describe periods wherein large expanses of Earth's oceans were depleted of dissolved oxygen (O2), creating toxic, euxinic (anoxic and sulfidic) waters. Although anoxic events have not happened for millions of years, the geologic record shows that they happened many times in the past. Anoxic events coincided with several mass extinctions and may have contributed to them. These mass extinctions include some that geobiologists use as time markers in biostratigraphic dating. On the other hand, there are widespread, various black-shale beds from the mid-Cretaceous which indicate anoxic events but are not associated with mass extinctions. Many geologists believe oceanic anoxic events are strongly linked to the slowing of ocean circulation, climatic warming, and elevated levels of greenhouse gases. Researchers have proposed enhanced volcanism (the release of CO2) as the "central external trigger for euxinia."

In the geologic timescale, the Capitanian is an age or stage of the Permian. It is also the uppermost or latest of three subdivisions of the Guadalupian Epoch or Series. The Capitanian lasted between 264.28 and 259.51 million years ago. It was preceded by the Wordian and followed by the Wuchiapingian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Early Triassic</span> First of three epochs of the Triassic Period

The Early Triassic is the first of three epochs of the Triassic Period of the geologic timescale. It spans the time between 251.9 Ma and 247.2 Ma. Rocks from this epoch are collectively known as the Lower Triassic Series, which is a unit in chronostratigraphy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Olenekian</span> Age in the Early Triassic epoch

In the geologic timescale, the Olenekian is an age in the Early Triassic epoch; in chronostratigraphy, it is a stage in the Lower Triassic series. It spans the time between 251.2 Ma and 247.2 Ma. The Olenekian is sometimes divided into the Smithian and the Spathian subages or substages. The Olenekian follows the Induan and is followed by the Anisian.

<i>Daptocephalus</i> Assemblage Zone

The Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone is a tetrapod assemblage zone or biozone found in the Adelaide Subgroup of the Beaufort Group, a majorly fossiliferous and geologically important geological Group of the Karoo Supergroup in South Africa. This biozone has outcrops located in the upper Teekloof Formation west of 24°E, the majority of the Balfour Formation east of 24°E, and the Normandien Formation in the north. It has numerous localities which are spread out from Colesberg in the Northern Cape, Graaff-Reniet to Mthatha in the Eastern Cape, and from Bloemfontein to Harrismith in the Free State. The Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone is one of eight biozones found in the Beaufort Group and is considered Late Permian (Lopingian) in age. Its contact with the overlying Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone marks the Permian-Triassic boundary.

The Emeishan Traps constitute a flood basalt volcanic province, or large igneous province, in south-western China, centred in Sichuan province. It is sometimes referred to as the Permian Emeishan Large Igneous Province or Emeishan Flood Basalts. Like other volcanic provinces or "traps", the Emeishan Traps are multiple layers of igneous rock laid down by large mantle plume volcanic eruptions. The Emeishan Traps eruptions were serious enough to have global ecological and paleontological impact.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fossil record of fire</span> Fossilized evidence of wildfires on Earth

The fossil record of fire first appears with the establishment of a land-based flora in the Middle Ordovician period, 470 million years ago, permitting the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere as never before, as the new hordes of land plants pumped it out as a waste product. When this concentration rose above 13%, it permitted the possibility of wildfire. Wildfire is first recorded in the Late Silurian fossil record, 420 million years ago, by fossils of charcoalified plants. Apart from a controversial gap in the Late Devonian, charcoal is present ever since. The level of atmospheric oxygen is closely related to the prevalence of charcoal: clearly oxygen is the key factor in the abundance of wildfire. Fire also became more abundant when grasses radiated and became the dominant component of many ecosystems, around 6 to 7 million years ago; this kindling provided tinder which allowed for the more rapid spread of fire. These widespread fires may have initiated a positive feedback process, whereby they produced a warmer, drier climate more conducive to fire.

The Carnian pluvial episode (CPE), often called the Carnian pluvial event, was an interval of major change in global climate that was synchronous with significant changes in Earth's biota both in the sea and on land. It occurred during the latter part of the Carnian Stage, a subdivision of the late Triassic period, and lasted for perhaps 1-2 million years. The CPE represents a significant episode in the evolution and diversification of many taxa that are important today, among them some of the earliest dinosaurs, lepidosaurs, pterosaurs and true mammals. In the marine realm it saw the first appearance among the microplankton of coccoliths and dinoflagellates, with the latter linked to the rapid diversification of scleractinian corals through the establishment of symbiotic zooxanthellae within them. The CPE also saw the extinction of many aquatic invertebrate species, especially among the ammonoids, bryozoa, and crinoids.

The Lilliput effect is a decrease in body size in animal species that have survived a major extinction. There are several hypotheses as to why these patterns appear in the fossil record, some of which are: the survival of small taxa, dwarfing of larger lineages, and the evolutionary miniaturization from larger ancestral stocks. The term was coined in 1993 by Adam Urbanek in his paper concerning the extinction of graptoloids and is derived from the island of Lilliput inhabited by a miniature race of people in Gulliver’s Travels. This size decrease may just be a temporary phenomenon restricted to the survival period of the extinction event. In 2019 Atkinson et al. coined the term the Brobdingnag effect to describe a related phenomenon operating in the opposite direction, whereby new species evolving after the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction originated at small body sizes before undergoing a size increase. The term is also from Gulliver's Travels where Brobnignag is a land inhabited by a race of giants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Capitanian mass extinction event</span> Extinction event around 260 million years ago

The Capitanian mass extinction event, also known as the end-Guadalupian extinction event, the Guadalupian-Lopingian boundary mass extinction, the pre-Lopingian crisis, or the Middle Permian extinction, was an extinction event that predated the end-Permian extinction event. The mass extinction occurred during a period of decreased species richness and increased extinction rates near the end of the Middle Permian, also known as the Guadalupian epoch. It is often called the end-Guadalupian extinction event because of its initial recognition between the Guadalupian and Lopingian series; however, more refined stratigraphic study suggests that extinction peaks in many taxonomic groups occurred within the Guadalupian, in the latter half of the Capitanian age. The extinction event has been argued to have begun around 262 million years ago with the Late Guadalupian crisis, though its most intense pulse occurred 259 million years ago in what is known as the Guadalupian-Lopingian boundary event.

Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 2020.

Paul Barry Wignall is a British palaeontologist and sedimentologist. He is best known for his research on mass extinctions in the marine realm., particularly via the interpretation of black shales.

References

  1. ↑ Partial list from Image:Extinction Intensity.png
  2. 1 2 Bond, David P. G.; Grasby, Stephen E. (2017-07-15). "On the causes of mass extinctions". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. Mass Extinction Causality: Records of Anoxia, Acidification, and Global Warming during Earth's Greatest Crises. 478: 3–29. Bibcode:2017PPP...478....3B. doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.11.005 . ISSN   0031-0182.
  3. ↑ Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF (13 November 2017). "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice". BioScience . 67 (12): 1026–1028. doi: 10.1093/biosci/bix125 . hdl: 11336/71342 . Moreover, we have unleashed a mass extinction event, the sixth in roughly 540 million years, wherein many current life forms could be annihilated or at least committed to extinction by the end of this century.
  4. ↑ Sandom, Christopher; Faurby, Søren; Sandel, Brody; Svenning, Jens-Christian (4 June 2014). "Global late Quaternary megafauna extinctions linked to humans, not climate change". Proceedings of the Royal Society B . 281 (1787): 20133254. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.3254. PMC   4071532 . PMID   24898370.
  5. ↑ Vignieri, S. (25 July 2014). "Vanishing fauna (Special issue)". Science . 345 (6195): 392–412. Bibcode:2014Sci...345..392V. doi: 10.1126/science.345.6195.392 . PMID   25061199. Although some debate persists, most of the evidence suggests that humans were responsible for extinction of this Pleistocene fauna, and we continue to drive animal extinctions today through the destruction of wild lands, consumption of animals as a resource or a luxury, and persecution of species we see as threats or competitors.
  6. ↑ Oppenheimer, Clive (2002-08-01). "Limited global change due to the largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74kyr BP?". Quaternary Science Reviews. 21 (14): 1593–1609. Bibcode:2002QSRv...21.1593O. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00154-8. ISSN   0277-3791.
  7. ↑ Benitez, Narciso; et al. (2002). "Evidence for Nearby Supernova Explosions". Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 (8): 081101. arXiv: astro-ph/0201018 . Bibcode:2002PhRvL..88h1101B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.081101. PMID   11863949. S2CID   41229823.
  8. ↑ Fimiani, L.; Cook, D.L.; Faestermann, T.; Gómez-Guzmán, J.M.; Hain, K.; Herzog, G.; Knie, K.; Korschinek, G.; Ludwig, P.; Park, J.; Reedy, R.C.; Rugel, G. (13 April 2016). "Interstellar 60Fe on the Surface of the Moon". Physical Review Letters. 116 (15): 151104. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116o1104F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.151104. PMID   27127953.
  9. ↑ "Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary: did Eltanin asteroid kickstart the ice ages?". Archived from the original on 2017-10-03. Retrieved 2019-01-18.
  10. ↑ "Did a Killer Asteroid Drive the Planet Into An Ice Age?". Universe Today. 20 September 2012.
  11. ↑ Holbourn, Ann; Kuhnt, Wolfgang; Schulz, Michael; Erlenkeuser, Helmut (2005). "Impacts of orbital forcing and atmospheric carbon dioxide on Miocene ice-sheet expansion". Nature. 438 (7067): 483–87. Bibcode:2005Natur.438..483H. doi:10.1038/nature04123. PMID   16306989. S2CID   4406410.
  12. ↑ "Russia's Popigai Meteor Crash Linked to Mass Extinction". Live Science . June 13, 2014.
  13. ↑ Brusatte, Steve (2018). The Rise and Fall of the Dinosaurs. London: Picador. pp. 328–35. ISBN   978-1-5098-3009-1.
  14. ↑ David Bond; Paul Wignall. "Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions: An update" (PDF). p. 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-24.
  15. ↑ Singh, A. P.; Kumar, Niraj; Singh, Bijendra (2004). "Magmatic underplating beneath the Rajmahal Traps:Gravity signature and derived 3-D configuration.Proc". Indian Acad. Sci. (Earth Planet. Sci: 759–769. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.501.4945 . doi:10.1007/BF02704035. S2CID   129952630.
  16. ↑ Tennant, Jonathan P.; Mannion, Philip D.; Upchurch, Paul; Sutton, Mark D.; Price, Gregory D. (2017). "Biotic and environmental dynamics through the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous transition: evidence for protracted faunal and ecological turnover". Biological Reviews. 92 (2): 776–814. doi: 10.1111/brv.12255 . ISSN   1469-185X. PMC   6849608 . PMID   26888552.
  17. ↑ József Pálfy; Paul L. Smith (2000). "Synchrony between Early Jurassic extinction, oceanic anoxic event, and the Karoo-Ferrar flood basalt volcanism". Geology. 28 (8): 747–750. Bibcode:2000Geo....28..747P. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<747:SBEJEO>2.0.CO;2.
  18. ↑ Blackburn, Terrence J.; Olsen, Paul E.; Bowring, Samuel A.; McLean, Noah M.; Kent, Dennis V; Puffer, John; McHone, Greg; Rasbury, Troy; Et-Touhami7, Mohammed (2013). "Zircon U-Pb Geochronology Links the End-Triassic Extinction with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province". Science. 340 (6135): 941–45. Bibcode:2013Sci...340..941B. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.1019.4042 . doi:10.1126/science.1234204. PMID   23519213. S2CID   15895416.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ Onoue, Tetsuji; Sato, Honami; Yamashita, Daisuke; Ikehara, Minoru; Yasukawa, Kazutaka; Fujinaga, Koichiro; Kato, Yasuhiro; Matsuoka, Atsushi (8 July 2016). "Bolide impact triggered the Late Triassic extinction event in equatorial Panthalassa". Scientific Reports. 6 (29609): 29609. Bibcode:2016NatSR...629609O. doi:10.1038/srep29609. PMC   4937377 . PMID   27387863.
  20. ↑ Dal Corso, J.; Mietto, P.; Newton, R.J.; Pancost, R.D.; Preto, N.; Roghi, G.; Wignall, P.B. (2012). "Discovery of a major negative δ13C spike in the Carnian (Late Triassic) linked to the eruption of Wrangellia flood basalts". Geology . 40 (1): 79–82. Bibcode:2012Geo....40...79D. doi:10.1130/g32473.1.
  21. ↑ Song, Haijun; Song, Huyue; Tong, Jinnan; Gordon, Gwyneth W.; Wignall, Paul B.; Tian, Li; Zheng, Wang; Algeo, Thomas J.; Liang, Lei; Bai, Ruoyu; Wu, Kui; Anbar, Ariel D. (2021-02-20). "Conodont calcium isotopic evidence for multiple shelf acidification events during the Early Triassic". Chemical Geology. 562: 120038. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2020.120038. ISSN   0009-2541. S2CID   233915627.
  22. ↑ Hochuli, Peter A.; Sanson-Barrera, Anna; Schneebeli-Hermann, Elke; Bucher, Hugo (2016-06-24). "Severest crisis overlooked—Worst disruption of terrestrial environments postdates the Permian–Triassic mass extinction". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 28372. Bibcode:2016NatSR...628372H. doi:10.1038/srep28372. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   4920029 . PMID   27340926.
  23. ↑ algeo, Thomas (2023-09-08). "Theory and classification of mass extinction causation". academic.oup.com. doi:10.1093/nsr/nwad237 . Retrieved 2023-11-22.
  24. ↑ Campbell, I; Czamanske, G.; Fedorenko, V.; Hill, R.; Stepanov, V. (1992). "Synchronism of the Siberian Traps and the Permian-Triassic Boundary". Science. 258 (5089): 1760–63. Bibcode:1992Sci...258.1760C. doi:10.1126/science.258.5089.1760. PMID   17831657. S2CID   41194645.
  25. ↑ von Frese, R; Potts, L.; Wells, S.; Leftwich, T.; Kim, H. (2009). "GRACE gravity evidence for an impact basin in Wilkes Land, Antarctica". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 10 (2): n/a. Bibcode:2009GGG....10.2014V. doi: 10.1029/2008GC002149 .
  26. ↑ Wignall, P; Twitchett, R (2002). "Extent, duration, and nature of the Permian-Triassic superanoxic event". In Christian Koeberl; Kenneth G. MacLeod (eds.). Catastrophic events and mass extinctions: impacts and beyond. Geological Society of America. p. 396. doi:10.1130/0-8137-2356-6.395. ISBN   978-0813723563.
  27. ↑ Ice age, not warming, explains Permian-Triassic extinction event - UPI.com
  28. ↑ Bond, David P.G.; Wignall, Paul B. (2014-09-01). Bond.pdf "Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions: An update" (PDF). Geological Society of America Special Papers. 505: 29–55. doi:10.1130/2014.2505(02). ISBN   9780813725055. ISSN   0072-1077.{{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)
  29. ↑ Doblas, Miguel; R., OYARZUN; J., LOPEZ-RUIZ; J.M., CEBRIA; Youbi, Nasrrddine; V., MAHECHA; Lago San José, Marceliano; POCOVI; B., CABANIS (1998-12-01). "Permo-Carboniferous Volcanism in Europe and North Africa: a Superplume exhaust valve in The Center of Pangea". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 26: 89–99. doi:10.1016/S0899-5362(97)00138-3.
  30. ↑ Fields, Brian D.; Melott, Adrian L.; Ellis, John; Ertel, Adrienne F.; Fry, Brian J.; Lieberman, Bruce S.; Liu, Zhenghai; Miller, Jesse A.; Thomas, Brian C. (2020-09-01). "Supernova triggers for end-Devonian extinctions". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (35): 21008–21010. arXiv: 2007.01887 . Bibcode:2020PNAS..11721008F. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2013774117 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   7474607 . PMID   32817482.
  31. ↑ Ricci, J; et al. (2013). "New 40Ar/39Ar and K–Ar ages of the Viluy traps (Eastern Siberia): Further evidence for a relationship with the Frasnian–Famennian mass extinction". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 386: 531–40. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.06.020.
  32. ↑ Jeppsson, L. (1998). "Silurian oceanic events: summary of general characteristics". In Landing, E.; Johnson, M.E. (eds.). Silurian Cycles: Linkages of Dynamic Stratigraphy with Atmospheric, Oceanic and Tectonic Changes. James Hall Centennial Volume. New York State Museum Bulletin. Vol. 491. pp. 239–57.
  33. ↑ Jeppsson, L.; Calner, M. (2007). "The Silurian Mulde Event and a scenario for secundo – secundo events". Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 93 (2): 135–54. doi:10.1017/s0263593300000377. S2CID   129308139.
  34. ↑ Munnecke, Axel; Samtleben, Christian; Bickert, Torsten (5 June 2003). "The Ireviken Event in the lower Silurian of Gotland, Sweden - relation to similar Palaeozoic and Proterozoic events". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 195 (1–2): 119. Bibcode:2003PPP...195...99M. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00304-3.
  35. ↑ Jeppsson, L (1997). "The anatomy of the Mid-Early Silurian Ireviken Event and a scenario for P-S events". In Brett, C.E.; Baird, G.C. (eds.). Paleontological Events: Stratigraphic, Ecological, and Evolutionary Implications. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 451–92.
  36. ↑ Bond, David P.G.; Grasby, Stephen E. (18 May 2020). "Late Ordovician mass extinction caused by volcanism, warming, and anoxia, not cooling and glaciation". Geology. 48 (8): 777–781. Bibcode:2020Geo....48..777B. doi: 10.1130/G47377.1 .
  37. ↑ Ware, Bryant D.; Jourdan, Fred; Merle, Renaud; Chiaradia, Massimo; Hodges, Kyle (2018-04-01). "The Kalkarindji Large Igneous Province, Australia: Petrogenesis of the Oldest and Most Compositionally Homogenous Province of the Phanerozoic". Journal of Petrology. 59 (4): 635–665. Bibcode:2018JPet...59..635W. doi: 10.1093/petrology/egy040 . ISSN   0022-3530.
  38. ↑ Zhang, Feifei; Xiao, Shuhai; Kendall, Brian; Romaniello, Stephen J.; Cui, Huan; Meyer, Mike; Gilleaudeau, Geoffrey J.; Kaufman, Alan J.; Anbar, Ariel D. (2018). "Extensive marine anoxia during the terminal Ediacaran Period". Science Advances . American Association for the Advancement of Science. 4 (6): eaan8983. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.8983Z. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aan8983 . ISSN   2375-2548. PMC   6010336 . PMID   29938217.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.