Naxalism

Last updated

Banner used by Maoists, featuring the hammer and sickle South Asian Communist Banner.svg
Banner used by Maoists, featuring the hammer and sickle

Naxalism is the communist ideology of the Naxalites (or Naxals), a grouping of political and insurgent groups from India. It is influenced by Maoist political sentiment and ideology.

Contents

Inspired by Maoism, Charu Majumdar wrote the Historic Eight Documents, which became the basis of Naxalism. Majumdar, Kanu Sanyal, and Jangal Santhal formed a faction of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) that called for a protracted people's war. The Naxalite–Maoist insurgency started after a 1967 uprising in the village of Naxalbari, West Bengal. The ideology takes its name from the village. After the uprising, Sanyal established the Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist). Majumdar's writings became popular in urban areas. As students in Calcutta began to join the Naxalite movement, Majumdar shifted the ideology's focus beyond rural areas. The Naxalites splintered into various groups supportive of Maoist ideology. Under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act of India (1967), some Naxalite organisations are designated as terrorist groups.

Naxalites believe that there is a class conflict between agricultural workers and landowners and that the Constitution of India lacks protections for tribal workers. This ideology has been popular among tribal people. Naxal groups have become authorities in areas they control, where they develop infrastructure, which gains support from residents. Naxalites have recruited youths, particularly those aligned with the working class. Naxalite feminists have said that leaders of Naxalite groups have committed violence against women and sexual violence. Naxalite groups are funded by extorting profits from companies, especially mining companies, in areas they control. The illegal drug trade is another funding source.

Etymology

The term Naxalite originated from the name of the village Naxalbari in West Bengal where an uprising of peasants occurred in 1967. The movement itself is referred to as "Naxalism" and the people engaged are termed as "Naxals" or "Naxalites". The term "Naxalism" is broadly applied to refer to all the communist insurgent movements. [1] The groups are commonly referred to as Maoists as they are supportive of Maoist ideology. [2]

History

Mao Zedong, whose Maoist ideology influenced Naxalism Mao Zedong in 1959 (cropped).jpg
Mao Zedong, whose Maoist ideology influenced Naxalism

In 1967, a faction of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M) led by Charu Majumdar, Kanu Sanyal, and Jangal Santhal called the "Siliguri group" wanted a protracted people's war in India similar to the Chinese Communist Revolution and Majumdar wrote the Historic Eight Documents which became the foundation of the Naxalite movement. [3] [4] The party was part of a coalition government in West Bengal. Majumdar believed that the party would support his doctrine. Land minister Hare Krishna Konar had been supporting his rhetoric and said, "the militant confiscation of land was integral to the party's programme." [5] [6]

The Naxalbari uprising occurred in 1967 when farmers in Naxalbari, West Bengal, revolted with the support of the CPI-M. The event began the first wave of the Naxalite–Maoist insurgency, and influenced later waves. According to historian Sumanta Banerjee, there "can be no doubt that Naxalbari was a watershed in the recent history of India.... Most of the progressive trends in social activism today can be traced indirectly to the issues raised by or associated with the Naxalite movement in 1967." [7]

In November 1967, a group led by Sushital Ray Chowdhury organised the All India Coordination Committee of Communist Revolutionaries (AICCCR). [8] Mao Zedong provided ideological inspiration for the movement. He advocated that Indian peasants and lower class tribals overthrow the government of the upper classes by force. [9] [5] Many urban elites were attracted to the ideology, which spread through Majumdar's writings. These writings essayed from the opinions of communist leaders and theorists such as Mao, Karl Marx, and Vladimir Lenin. [9]

The uprising led to the formation of Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) (CPI-ML) in April 1969, which was announced by Sanyal at a mass meeting in Calcutta. [10] It inspired similar movements in states like Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. [11] In 1971, Satyanarayan Singh revolted against the leadership and split the CPI-ML into two, forming a separate provisional committee. [12]

Naxalism gained popularity among student groups in Calcutta. [13] Students left school to join the Naxalites and Majumdar declared that the revolutionary warfare was to take place not only in the rural areas as before, but now everywhere and spontaneously. He also declared an "annihilation line" and issued a dictum to assassinate individual "class enemies" such as landlords, businessmen, teachers, police officers, politicians and others. [14] [15]

With the support of the government of India, Operation Steeplechase was launched with the aid of the paramilitary forces of the Indian Armed Forces, which resulted in the killing and imprisoning of suspected Naxalites and their cadres, including senior leaders. [16] [17] In July 1972, Majumdar was arrested by the West Bengal Police and he later died in police custody. [18] [19] After his death, the CPI-ML split into further factions such as the Mahadev Mukherjee faction and the CPI-ML Liberation in 1972. [20] By 1973, the main leaders of the Naxalites were either eliminated or arrested. [21] [22] As a result of both external repression and a failure to maintain internal unity, the movement degenerated into extreme sectarianism and the original party fractured into more than 40 separate small groups. [23] Naxalite organisations and groups were declared as terrorist organisations under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act of India (1967). [24] [25]

The late 1970s saw the spread of Naxalism to other states of India. [26] By 1980, it was estimated that around 30 Naxalite groups were active, with a combined membership of 30,000 members. [27] In South India, the Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) People's War was founded by Kondapalli Seetharamaiah in 1980. [28] The People's Liberation Guerrilla Army, the armed wing of the CPI-M, was founded in 2000. [29]

Causes

Access to land and resources

The Maoist movement began in the late 1960s as a conflict between the tribal peasants and the land owners. This was attributed to a failure of the Indian government to implement constitutional reforms to provide for tribal autonomy with respect to natural resources on their lands, implement the land ceiling laws to limit the land possessed by the landlords and distribute the excess land to landless farmers and labourers. [30] According to Maoist sympathisers, the Indian constitution "ratified colonial policy and made the state custodian of tribal homelands" and turned tribal populations into squatters on their own land, denying them their traditional rights to forest produce. [31] Tribal communities participated in Naxalism probably as a means of push back against structural violence by the state, including the usage of land for the purposes of mineral extraction. [32]

Rural development and protection

Impoverished areas with no electricity, running water, or poor healthcare provided by the state probably accepted social services from Naxalite groups, and gave their support to the Naxal cause in return. [33] The state's absence allowed the Naxalites to become the legitimate authority in these areas by performing state-like functions, including enacting policies of redistribution and building infrastructure for irrigation. [34] Testimonies from people and surveys by government officials and journalists have highlighted the protective and developmental work in the villages as a result of Naxalism. [35] Healthcare initiatives such as malaria vaccination drives and medical units in areas without doctors or hospitals have also been documented. [36] [37]

As per an Indian government report, it was indicated that the Maoists "prevent the common villager's powerlessness over the neglect or violation of protective laws...[from] a trader who might be paying an exploitative rate for forest produce, or a contractor who is violating the minimum wage." It also mentions that the developmental work done by the Maoists including "mobilizing community labour for farm ponds, rainwater harvesting, and land conservation works in the Dandakaranya region, which villagers testified had improved their crops and improved their food security situation." [38] A 2010 case study in the Economic and Political Weekly taken from 200 Maoist-affected districts in Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, intended to investigate the government's initiative to increase employment in these Maoist-affected areas. It found that the claims of the government that the Maoists blocked developmental schemes were not valid and the Maoists were responsible for the enforcement of minimum wages in the areas. [39] Although Naxalite groups engaged in coercion to increase membership, the experience of poverty when contrasted with the state's economic growth, could have created an appeal for the Naxal ideology and incentivised the tribal communities to join the Naxal movements out of "moral solidarity". [33]

Organisation

The Naxalites focused on the idea of a revolutionary personality while recruiting people to the organisation, which was termed as necessary for maintaining and establishing loyalty among the Naxalites by Charu Majumdar. During the early years of the movement, he believed that the essential characteristics of a recruit must be selflessness and the ability to self-sacrifice, and in order to produce such a specific personality, the organisation recruited students and youth. In addition to entrenching loyalty and a revolutionary personality within these new insurgents, the Naxalites chose the youth also because of other reasons. These were mostly students and it was necessary to include educated youth as these recruits would then be involved in spreading the communist teachings of Mao Zedong. In order to expand their base, the movement relied on these students to spread the communist philosophy to the uneducated rural and working-class communities. Majumdar also believed that it necessary to recruit youth who would be able to integrate themselves with the peasantry and working classes, and by living and working in similar conditions to these lower-class communities, these recruits could carry the communist teachings to the villages and urban centres. [40]

The Krantikari Adivasi Mahila Sangathan is a feminist organisation that was formed in 1986 as a result of the party's acknowledgment of extreme inequality against women, both within the party itself and among the tribal villages the party aimed to protect. They campaigned against the tribal tradition of forced marriage, bigamy and violence along with peasant rights. [41] However, Shobha Mandi, a former member who later quit the organisation, wrote in her book Ek Maowadi Ki Diary that she was repeatedly raped and assaulted by her fellow commanders for more than seven years since she wanted to quit. She also claimed that wife-swapping and adultery are the common amongst the Maoists. [42] The Naxalites claim that physical violence and sexual mutilation have been directed at their members by the police and the Salwa Judum, which had forced them to join the group. [41]

Financing

Naxalites conduct detailed socio-economic surveys before operating in a target area and depend on diverse resources. [43] Studies have indicated correlation between the core area of insurgency and the areas with extensive natural resources. [44] The mining industry is a major financial source, wherein they collect about 3% of the profits from each mining company that operates in the areas under Naxal control as a means to continue mining operations and for "protection" services which allows miners to work without having to worry about Naxalite attacks. [45] A 2006 report indicated that the Maoists extorted about ₹14 billion (US$170 million) annually. [46] The organisation also funds itself through the drug trade, where it cultivates psychoactive plants such as marijuana and opium, which are then distributed throughout the country by middlemen who work on behalf of the Naxalites. About 40% of Naxal funding comes through the cultivation and distribution of opium. [47] A surrendered Naxal claimed that they spent some of the money on public infrastructure while the rest is used for the sustenance of the group. [48] In 2011, the Indian police accused the Chinese government of providing sanctuary to the movement's leaders, and claimed that the Pakistani ISI was providing financial support. [49]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist)</span> Far-left political party in India from 1969–72

The Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) (CPI(ML)) was an Indian communist party formed by the All India Coordination Committee of Communist Revolutionaries (AICCCR) at a congress in Calcutta in 1969. The foundation of the party was declared by Kanu Sanyal at a mass meeting in Calcutta on 22 April, Vladimir Lenin's birthday. Later the CPI(ML) party splintered into several Naxalite groups.

Charu Mazumdar, popularly known as CM, was an Indian Communist leader, and founder and General Secretary of the Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist). Born into a progressive landlord family in Siliguri in 1918, he became a Communist during the Indian Independence Movement, and later formed the militant Naxalite cause. During this period, he authored the historic accounts of the 1967 Naxalbari uprising. His writings, particularly the Historic Eight Documents, have become part of the ideology of a number of Communism-aligned political parties in India.

Kanu Sanyal was an Indian communist politician. In 1967, he was one of the main leaders of the Naxalbari uprising and in 1969 he was one of the founding leaders of Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist). Sanyal died by suicide on 23 March 2010.

The Maoist Communist Centre (MCC) was one of the largest two armed Maoist groups in India, and fused with the other, the People's War Group in September 2004, to form the Communist Party of India (Maoist).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Historic Eight Documents</span> Political documents

The Historic Eight Documents are a set of eight monographs authored by the Indian Maoist revolutionary Charu Majumdar that outline the ideological principles on which the Naxalite militant communist movement in India was based. They laid down the idea that the Indian State was a bourgeois institution and that the main Indian communist parties had embraced revisionism by agreeing to operate within the framework of the Constitution of India. They urged a Maoist protracted people's war to overthrow the Indian State. They denounced the Soviet Union both for being revisionist, as well as for supporting the Indian State.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vempatapu Satyanarayana</span>

Vempatapu Satyanarayana (Satyam) was a schoolteacher, member of several Indian Communist organizations, and a leader of the Srikakulam peasant uprising of 1967, along with Adibhatla Kailasam and Subbarao Panigrahi. They had started the "land to tiller" movement in Andhra Pradesh, which later spread to South Odisha.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naxalite–Maoist insurgency</span> Armed conflict in India between the state and Maoists

The Naxalite–Maoist insurgency is part of an ongoing conflict between left-wing extremist groups and the Indian government. The Naxalites are a group of communist supportive groups, who often follow Maoist political sentiment and ideology.

The April 2010 Dantewada Maoist attack was an 6 April 2010 ambush by Naxalite-Maoist insurgents from the Communist Party of India (Maoist) near Chintalnar village in Dantewada district, Chhattisgarh, India, leading to the killing of 76 CRPF policemen and 8 Maoists — the deadliest attack by the Maoists on Indian security forces.

Jangal Santhal, also known as Jangal Santal was an Indian political activist.

The Central Organising Committee, Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Party Unity, more commonly known as CPI(ML) Party Unity or simply 'Party Unity', was a communist party in India 1982-1998. Narayan Sanyal alias Naveen Prasad was the general secretary of the party. Party Unity was the official organ of the party. CPI(ML) Party Unity was one of the predecessors of the Communist Party of India (Maoist).

Santosh Rana was an Indian politician. In the 1960s, he was a prominent figure in the armed struggle of the Naxalites led by Charu Majumdar. Rana received Ananda Puraskar for his book Rajnitir Ek Jibon in 2018.

Secession in India typically refers to state secession, which is the withdrawal of one or more states from the Republic of India. Whereas, some have wanted a separate state, union territory or an autonomous administrative division within India. Many separatist movements exist with thousands of members, however, some have low local support and high voter participation in democratic elections. However, at the same time, demanding separate statehood within under the administration of Indian union from an existing state can lead to criminal charges under secession law in India. India is described as an ‘Union of States’ in Article 1 of the Indian constitution I.e "Indestructible nation of destructible states" by its father of constitution Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar where a state or Union territory of India cannot secede from India by any means and the Central Government has more powers than the respective state governments and can forcefully change the names and boundaries of the states without their permission at any time when needed for self interest and for the maintenance of integrity.

Narmada was an Indian politician who was one of the "senior-most" female cadres of the Communist Party of India (Maoist), a banned Maoist insurgent communist party in India. She was a Central Committee member of the party, and reportedly used to frame "all policies for the female cadre of Maoists."

Sushital Ray Chowdhary was an Indian Communist intellectual and founder member of Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist). He was the editor of the organs of the CPI, CPI(M) and CPI(ML). He eventually fell out with the mainstream Charu Majumdar group and died of a heart attack in March, 1971.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saroj Dutta</span> Indian intellectual and Poet (1914–1971)

Saroj Dutta popularly known comrade SD, was an Indian communist intellectual and poet, active in the Naxalite movement in West Bengal in the 1960s. He was the first West Bengal state secretary of Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist). He also remained editor-in-chief of the Amrita Bazar Patrika during the 1940s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Srikakulam peasant uprising</span>

The Srikakulam peasant uprising occurred from 1967 to 1970, in Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh, India. The Naxalbari uprising at the beginning of the Naxalite movement during the 1960s inspired the upsurge.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naxalbari uprising</span> Armed uprising in India

Naxalbari uprising was an armed peasant revolt in 1967 in the Naxalbari block of Siliguri subdivision in Darjeeling district, West Bengal, India. It was mainly led by tribals and the radical communist leaders of Bengal and further developed into the Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) in 1969. The armed struggle became an inspiration to the Naxalite movement which rapidly spread from West Bengal to other states of India creating division within the Communist Party of India (Marxist) - India's primary communist party.

Dilip Bagchi was a Bengali mass singer, educationist and political activist. He was an active member of Indian People's Theatre Association of West Bengal.

Central Organising Committee, Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) was a communist party in India, one of the main splinter factions of the original Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist). COC, CPI(ML) occupied a middle position between the pro-Charu Majumdar group led by Mahadev Mukherjee and the anti-Majumdar group led by Satyanarayan Singh. Failing to articulate a common ideological position, COC, CPI(ML) soon suffered internal divisions and splits. Two of the splinter groups of COC, CPI(ML) in Andhra Pradesh are predecessors of the present-day Communist Party of India (Maoist).

Narayan Sanyal commonly known as Bijoy da and Naveen Prasad was a Maoist ideologue and a Politburo member of the Communist Party of India (Maoist). He was one of the earliest comrade of Naxal leader Charu Majumdar and member of undivided Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist). It is claimed that at the time of arrest Narayan Sanyal was next only to CPI (Maoist) the then general secretary Muppala Lakshmana Rao alias Ganapathy.

References

  1. ↑ "Naxalite". Britannica . Archived from the original on 28 May 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  2. ↑ "Communists Fight in India « Notes & Commentaries". Mccaine.org. 24 June 2009. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
  3. ↑ "The Naxalbari Uprising". Banned Thought. Archived from the original on 31 October 2010. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
  4. ↑ "Naxalite Ideology: Charu's Eight Documents". The Hindustan Times . 9 May 2003. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
  5. 1 2 Roy, Siddharthya. "Half a Century of India's Maoist Insurgency". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 3 October 2019. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  6. ↑ Atul Kohli (1998). From breakdown to order: West Bengal. Oxford University Press. p. 348. ISBN   0-19-564765-3.
  7. ↑ Kennedy, Jonathan; Purushotham, Sunil (2012). "Beyond Naxalbari: A Comparative Analysis of Maoist Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Independent India". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 54 (4): 832–862. doi:10.1017/S0010417512000436. ISSN   0010-4175. JSTOR   23274553.
  8. ↑ Mukherjee, Arun (2007). Maoist "spring thunder": the Naxalite movement 1967–1972. K.P. Bagchi. p. 295. ISBN   978-8-17074-303-3.
  9. 1 2 "History of Naxalism". The Hindustan Times . 22 February 2018. Archived from the original on 22 February 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
  10. ↑ Rao, Shamanth (10 March 2011). "The remains of Naxalbari". Live Mint . Retrieved 27 May 2021.
  11. ↑ "From Naxalbari to Nalgonda". The Hindu . 26 June 2015. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
  12. ↑ Mohanty, Manoranjan (1977). Revolutionary Violence. A Study of the Maoist Movement in India. Sterling Publishers. p. 120.
  13. ↑ Judith Vidal-Hall (2006). Naxalites. Vol. 35. Index on Censorship. pp. 73–75.
  14. ↑ Sen, Antara Dev (25 March 2010). "A true leader of the unwashed masses". Daily News and Analysis . Archived from the original on 7 January 2014.
  15. ↑ Dasgupta, Biplab (1973). "Naxalite Armed Struggles and the Annihilation Campaign in Rural Areas" (PDF). Economic and Political Weekly. 1973: 173–188. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2011.
  16. ↑ Lawoti, Mahendra; Pahari, Anup Kumar (2009). "Part V: Military and state dimension". The Maoist Insurgency in Nepal: Revolution in the Twenty-first Century. London: Routledge. p. 208. ISBN   978-1-135-26168-9.
  17. ↑ Pandita, Rahul (2011). Hello, Bastar : The Untold Story of India's Maoist Movement. Westland. pp. 23–24. ISBN   978-9-38065-834-6. OCLC   754482226.
  18. ↑ "The last of the three" . The Indian Express . 25 March 2010. Archived from the original on 6 October 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  19. ↑ "Charu Majumdar -- The Father of Naxalism". The Hindustan Times . 9 May 2003. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  20. ↑ "History of Naxalism". The Hindustan Times . Archived from the original on 14 August 2016.
  21. ↑ K.P. Singh (2008). The Trajectory of the Movement in The Naxal Challenge: Causes, Linkages and Policy Options. Dorling Kindersley. pp. 10–11.
  22. ↑ Anup K. Pahari (2010). Unequal Rebellions: The Continuum of 'People's War' in Nepal and India. Routledge. pp. 208–210.
  23. ↑ P.V. Ramana (2011). Michael Kugelman (ed.). India's Maoist Insurgency: Evolution, Current Trends, and Responses. Woodrow Wilson International Center. pp. 138–141.
  24. ↑ "Maoist Communist Centre – Extremism, India". South Asia Terrorism Portal. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  25. ↑ "People's War Group – Extremism, India". South Asia Terrorism Portal. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  26. ↑ "Naxalite violence continues in Calcutta". The Indian Express. 22 August 1970. p. 7. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
  27. ↑ Singh, Prakash (1999). The Naxalite Movement in India. Rupa & Co. p. 101.
  28. ↑ "India's Naxalite Insurgency: History, Trajectory, and Implications for U.S.-India Security Cooperation on Domestic Counterinsurgency by Thomas F. Lynch III" (PDF). Institute for National Strategic Studies.
  29. ↑ "CPI (Maoist) marks PLGA anniversary with mass contact programmes". The Times of India . 17 December 2012. Archived from the original on 16 October 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  30. ↑ E.N. Rammohan (16 July 2012). "Unleash The Good Force". Outlook . Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  31. ↑ Roy, Arundhati (27 March 2010). "Gandhi, but with guns: Part One". The Guardian . Archived from the original on 9 October 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  32. ↑ Shifting perspectives in tribal studies : from an anthropological approach to interdisciplinarity and consilience. Behera, M. C., 1959. Singapore. 25 June 2019. ISBN   978-9-811-38090-7. OCLC   1105928010.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  33. 1 2 Shah, Alpa (1 August 2013). "The intimacy of insurgency: beyond coercion, greed or grievance in Maoist India". Economy and Society. 42 (3): 480–506. doi:10.1080/03085147.2013.783662. ISSN   0308-5147. S2CID   143716444.
  34. ↑ Walia, H.S. (25 April 2018). "The Naxal Quagmire in Bihar & Jharkhand – Genesis & Sustenance". Learning Community. 9 (1). doi: 10.30954/2231-458X.01.2018.7 .
  35. ↑ Roy, Arundhati (20 September 2010). "The Trickledown Revolution". Outlook . Archived from the original on 23 June 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
  36. ↑ Santanama (2010). Jangalnama: Inside the Maoist Guerrilla Zone. New Delhi: Penguin. ISBN   9780143414452.
  37. ↑ Pandita, Rahul. (2011). Hello, Bastar : the untold story of India's Maoist movement. Chennai: Tranquebar Press. ISBN   978-9-380-65834-6. OCLC   754482226.
  38. ↑ Dandekar, Ajay; Choudhury, Chitrangada (January 2010). "PESA, Left-Wing Extremism and Governance: Concerns and Challenges in India's Tribal Districts".
  39. ↑ Banerjee, Kaustav; Saha, Partha (10 July 2010). "The NREGA, the Maoists and the Developmental Woes of the Indian State". Economic and Political Weekly. 45 (28): 42–47. Archived from the original on 23 June 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
  40. ↑ Dasgupta, Rajeshwari (2006). "UC Berkeley Library Proxy Login". Economic and Political Weekly. 41 (19): 1920–1927. JSTOR   4418215.
  41. 1 2 Roy, Arundhati (25 October 2011). Walking with the Comrades.
  42. ↑ "Wife-swapping, adultery, rapes.Former woman Maoist's shocking revelations on the ultras". India Today . 8 June 2013. Retrieved 8 June 2023.
  43. ↑ "India's Naxalites: A spectre haunting India". The Economist . 12 April 2006. Archived from the original on 23 May 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
  44. ↑ "South Asia news – Hidden civil war drains India's energy". Asia Times . 9 August 2006. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2009.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  45. ↑ Hoelscher, Kristian. Hearts and Mines: A District-Level Analysis of the Maoist Conflict in India (PDF) (Report). University of Heidelberg. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  46. ↑ A Modern Insurgency: India's Evolving Naxalite Problem (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 August 2010. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
  47. ↑ Prakash, Om (2015). "Funding Pattern of Naxal Movement in India". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 76: 900–907. JSTOR   44156660.
  48. ↑ "Confessions of a surrendered Naxal: 'Why I joined, why I renounced'". The Economic Times . 30 July 2021. Archived from the original on 16 September 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  49. ↑ "Cops nail China link with Naxals". The Times of India . 8 October 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2013. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.