| Pallanganmiddang | |
|---|---|
| Waywurru | |
| Native to | Australia |
| Region | Victoria |
| Ethnicity | Pallanganmiddang people |
| Extinct | ca. 1800 |
Pama–Nyungan
| |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | pmd |
| Glottolog | pall1243 |
| AIATSIS [1] | S89 |
Pallanganmiddang, or Waywurru, is an extinct, poorly-attested Aboriginal language of the Upper Murray region of the northeast of Victoria, that was spoken by the Pallanganmiddang people.
Many tribe and language names in the area end in a suffix variously spelt -matong, -middang, -mirttong, -mathang, and -mittung; [2] : 2 this suffix may have an etymological association with "speech" or "tongue" (compare Western Australian language Kalaamaya's midhany "tongue", likely a cognate [3] ), and, in Pallanganmiddang's case, seems to denote an ethnonym. [4]
Pallanganmiddang has been alternatively known as Balangamida, Pallangahmiddang, Pal-ler an mitter, Wavaroo, Wave Veroo, Waveroo, Wayyourong, Wayyouroo, Wayerroo, Waywurru, Weeerroo and Weeherroo. [5] [6] [7]
Although it was a Pama-Nyungan language, [8] Pallanganmiddang was likely quite distinct from its neighbouring languages, such as Dhudhuroa, Yorta Yorta and Wiradjuri; its percentage of shared vocabulary with its neighbours is very low. The only exception is a purported language mentioned in an 1899 list titled "Barwidgee, Upper Murray", with which Pallanganmiddang shares 39% of its vocabulary. This source may actually show a dialect of Dhudhuroa spoken near the border of Pallanganmiddang territory, or it may be conflating two languages, although the list's use of words not native to the area suggests its lack of reliability. [2] : 3
Despite its seeming lack of closeness to neighbouring languages, Pallanganmiddang does contain many roots familiar in Aboriginal languages such as nha- "to see", and yan- "to go". [2] : 3
There are only four primary source documents on the language: a vocabulary of 46 words from 1878 and a vocabulary of 109 words from 1886, a vocabulary of 341 words of unclear date, and a vocabulary of 63 words from 1900, which, taken together, provide a list of more than 300 words. [2] : 1–2
The consonant inventory was probably the same as in neighbouring languages. The following table shows the maximum inventory, with sounds not directly attested being shown in brackets: [2] : 3–4
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Dental | Palatal | Velar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop | p/b | t/d | ʈ/ɖ | t̪/d̪ | c/ɟ | k/ɡ |
| Nasal | m | n | (ɳ) | (n̪) | ɲ | ŋ |
| Lateral | l | (ɭ) | (l̪) | (ʎ) | ||
| Rhotic | r | |||||
| Approximant | w | j |
The following table shows consonants in both initial and intervocalic form; note the differences between the voiced and voiceless plosives: [2] : 4
| Initial | Medial | |
|---|---|---|
| p/b | pada "big" | kabiga "baby" |
| t/d | taka "hit" [A] | madega "old man" |
| rt/rd | ? | karda "crayfish" |
| th/dh | thirriwa "nails" | bathawatha "cold" |
| tj/dj | djuyu "snake" | budju "kangaroo" |
| k/g | kima "kangaroo rat" | bugu "bowels" |
| m | merri "ground" | marrimuna "lazy" |
| n | narra "wild dog" | mani "camp" |
| rn | ? | ? |
| nh | nhagadi "see" [B] | ? |
| ny | nyuma "rain" | noganya "give" |
| ng | ngaa "nose" | ? |
| l | — | ngalawiya "wood duck" |
| rr | — | karri "wind" |
| y | yarra "beard" | payorro "magpie" |
| w | warra "water" | wawa "brother" |
| A The alveolar initial is assumed here based on a cognate. |
| B The dental initial is assumed here based on various cognates. |
Only 7 words ending with consonants have been recorded (the word wugug is suspicious, however, as wowwer is also recorded and wugug is documented for another language in Victoria). Three of these words occur in another form (or similar word) ending in a vowel; even bab "mother" may have had the alternate form bab-ga, based on mam-ga "father". It seems likely Pallanganmiddang did not allow final consonants. [2] : 5
| Pallanganmiddang | English |
|---|---|
| wugug | elder brother |
| worungun | cord |
| karrin | laugh |
| bab | mother |
| tueyon (also ju-u) | snake |
| youllon (also ulo) | finger, toe |
| bunjun (compare punjoo "road") | track of a foot |
Pallanganmiddang contained homorganic nasal-plosive consonantal clusters. There were also heterorganic clusters, some of which went across morpheme boundaries such as -mg- in mam-ga "father". [2] : 5
| Cluster | English |
|---|---|
| mb | bamba "a fly" |
| nd | purranda "bad" |
| rnd | ? |
| ndh | berrontha "crow" |
| ndj | pandju "road" |
| ngg | pungga "stone" |
| Cluster | English |
|---|---|
| nb | winbinbi "sun" |
| ngb | narrangba "you're a bad boy" |
| md | wimda "spear" |
| mg | mamga "father" |
| lg | belgamba "shield" |
| nrr | mobenrru "bushman" |
| nm | tonmana "gammon", "tell a lie" |
Pallanganmiddang may have had only three vowels /i/, /u/ and /a/, similar to many Aboriginal languages, although the exact amount is unclear. Nonetheless, according to different sources, a, e, i, o, and u are all used. There may have been a distinction between long and short vowels, as suggested by the spelling in the first syllable of karmborro "group", but this is unclear. [2] : 5
There may have been no phonemic distinction between u and o, as suggested by variant spellings, such as koro and kurru "blood". [2] : 5
Monosyllabic words with no final consonant seemingly contained a long vowel (e.g. mii "eye", ngaa "nose"), a feature common in Aboriginal languages. [2] : 6
Robert M.W Dixon, in his notes, claimed that there seems to be evidence of sound correspondence between Pallanganmiddang and its neighbouring languages. See this list: [2] : 6
| English | Pallanganmiddang | Neighbouring languages |
|---|---|---|
| ear | marramba | marlamboa (Dhudhuroa) |
| tongue | dharra | dhalayn (widespread) |
| water | warra | wala (Yorta Yorta) wallung "rain" (Ngarigo) |
| wedge-tailed eagle | warrimu | wanumarru (Dhudhuroa) |
| excrement | gurra | guna (widespread) |
| foot | djirra | djina (widespread) |
| head | buwa | buka (Yorta Yorta) |
| dogh | bowa, bawa | baka (Yorta Yorta) |
No primary source data are available for Pallanganmiddang's grammar. However, there are short sentences included in the collected vocabulary lists, although it is difficult to glean much information from them. [2] : 6
The forms innar and neibee are both recorded for "you". Another word, ninna, although given as "I", could possibly be a variant of innar. If spelled ngina (as the initial velar nasal may have been unheard), it matches a word meaning "you" in Yorta Yorta and Latji-Latji. [2] : 6
Itebe is recorded for "I". This could have been pronounced something like ngaytbi, and so neibee, although given as "you", could perhaps be a first-person pronoun. In fact, neibee seems to match the final two syllables in bang(g)owonabi (translated as "hungry"), waurranmandjianabi (translated as "thirsty") and kanimanabi (translated as "drink"), possibly meaning "I'm hungry", "I'm thirsty", and "I drink". [2] : 6–7
Nyeende-nanga-durrah is recorded for "me", and nyeende for "my". However, a velar nasal, rather than the implied palatal nasal from the spelling, is more typical for first person pronouns in languages in the area. This could suggest they are possibly misglossed and are actually second person pronouns; alternatively, a sound change could have occurred, or the text could be erroneous. [2] : 7
One wordlist records wowandowan for "hungry"; since wan means "I" in several other languages in Victoria, this possibly suggests a translation of wowandowan as "I'm hungry" and therefore wan as a bound first-person pronoun (and the previously-mentioned ngina, etc as the free form). [2] : 7
There probably was a suffix -ntha (in neighbouring language Dhudhuroa, -ntha occurred as a second person subject bound pronoun): [2] : 7
| Pallanganmiddang | English |
|---|---|
| minyi-wayantha | answer |
| bobintha | burn |
| tagalitantha | eat |
| tang(g)rrintha | lame (in leg) |
| puthanda | sulky |
The suffix -gu can be found on verbs (in other languages of Victoria, this is a plural imperative or a dative-purposive marking a purposive or infinitive verb): [2] : 7
| Pallanganmiddang | English |
|---|---|
| yayi yani-gu | come |
| yayi yan-di-gu | fetch it |
| tuta-gu | catch |
| taka-gu | kill |
| maynde-gu? | take it |
Many verbs end in either -ti or -thi: [2] : 7–8
| Pallanganmiddang | English |
|---|---|
| taka-thi | eat |
| popa-ti | jump |
| yaga-thi | swim |
| yawa-ti | talk |
| kibi-thi | sing |
-dali appears in some words: [2] : 8
| Pallanganmiddang | English |
|---|---|
| kudji-dali (also given as kudjina) | cry |
| padadi-dali | dance |
| pewu-dali | ready to fight |
| tagurra wurrima-dali | wash |
-bi appears in some words: [2] : 8
| Pallanganmiddang | English |
|---|---|
| towadad-bi | fight |
| wurrarragurra-bi | lose the way |
| yana-bi? | walk |
-na appears to be a suffix, appearing on nouns, verbs, and forms of uncertain word class. This may actually represent two suffixes, the distinction unheard by the documenters. [2] : 8
| Pallanganmiddang | English |
|---|---|
| taka-na (compare taka-ku "kill") | beat |
| ton-ma-na | gammon, tell a lie |
| kudji-na (also given as kudjidali) | cry |
| yarra-na (also given as yarra) | beard |
Some nouns referring to humans end in -ga: [2] : 9
| Pallanganmiddang | English |
|---|---|
| yuwarriga (compare yuwarru "young man") | daughter |
| djerriga (compare djerri "man", "woman") | old woman |
| mamga (also given as mama) | father |
-di was possibly a causative suffix; compare the translations of "come" and "fetch it": [2] : 9
| Pallanganmiddang | English |
|---|---|
| yayi yani-gu | come |
| yayi yan-di-gu | fetch it |
The following table contains a list of selected vocabulary from Pallanganmiddang: [2]
| Pallanganmiddang | English |
|---|---|
| (ng)ina | you |
| noga | that |
| pulithap, pulido | two |
| pada | big |
| djerri | man |
| karrewa | fish |
| marrega | bird |
| bawa | dog |
| wonda | tree |
| waarri | bark |
| wada | skin |
| kurru | blood |
| buwa, boya | egg |
| buwa | head |
| marramba | ear |
| mii | eye |
| tagadhi | eat |
| nhaga- | see |
| ngurrangurra | sleep |
| barridjarra | die |
| taga- | kill |
| yakathi | swim |
| yan- | walk |
| yayiyani- | come |
| tanade, tandathi | stand up |
| bathawatha, bawatha | cold |
| murnang-djitaming(g)a | full |
| kayangi (-dji?) | good |