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Christocentric (a special emphasis upon Christ in preaching, interpretation and practice), and 'crucicentric' (a special emphasis on the atoning work of Christ on the cross)
The distinction of mankind from the rest of the created order, as mankind is created in "the image [tselem] and likeness [demuth] of God" (Gen. 1. 27)[4][5]
Two eternal conditions and abodes: the eternal life that is realised in the present by faith in Jesus Christ and that ends with the believer in the presence of the Lord (Heaven) after bodily death, and spiritual death that is realised in the present through slavery to sin and spiritual blindness that results in the unregenerate in eternal perdition (Hell) after bodily death.[citation needed] Christians believe that only God's grace in Christ can rescue condemned sinners from eternal destruction. Jesus distinguished between the "broad way that leads to destruction," and the "narrow way that leads to life" (Matt 7:13-14).
Christian exclusivism, or particularism. Salvation in Christ alone. Jesus is taught as having sole access to God the Father (John 14. 6)[citation needed] and as being the 'first' and highest priority for the Christian and the world (pre-eminence of Christ).
Emphasis is placed upon the prophetic fulfilment of the scriptures in Christ.
Regeneration by the Holy Spirit[4] and the personal indwelling of the Holy Spirit.[citation needed] Regeneration is considered to precede faith.
Salvation received through the appropriation of the saving work of Christ, not by any human deeds or efforts (Tit. 3. 5).[citation needed] Jesus' perfect obedience to the Law (active obedience), atoning death in place of guilty law-breaking sinners (substitutionary atonement), and the satisfaction of the demands of God's justice at the cross (penal substitution) are positively affirmed and defended.[citation needed]
Justification by faith alone in Christ alone and Jesus Christ as the object of saving faith.[citation needed]
39 books of the Old Testament and the 27 books of the New Testament[8][6] and Scripture as the supreme and final authority in faith, practice and life.[9][5]
Reformationalsolae – scripture alone (sola scriptura), grace alone (sola gratia), faith alone (sola fide), Christ alone (solus Christus), glory to God alone (soli Deo Gloria).[10]Tota scriptura (the whole scripture) and prima scriptura (scripture first) are related to sola scriptura.
Gymnobiblism and accommodation – the bare, accommodated text of a vernacular Bible without commentary, may be safely given to the unlearned as a sufficient guide to religious truth.[citation needed]
The believer's necessary dependence on the Holy Spirit, and the evidence of the works of the Holy Spirit on the believer (e.g. conviction of sin, confidence of forgiveness in Christ, assurance of adoption, renewed hope of heaven, etc.).[citation needed]
The goodness and grace of God, particularly the saving grace and forgiveness that comes through the redemption that is found in Christ.[citation needed]
The severity of sin and the righteousness of the law of God.[11]
The practice of believers to contend against 'spiritual darkness' and unrighteousness.[12]
The ordination of human government for maintaining justice and law.[12]
Unlike more mainstream fundamentalism, some reformed Christians have accepted forms of Historical, Young Biosphere (YBC) and Gap creationism.[citation needed]
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch. Conservative scholars have posited some assistance in Mosaic composition and antiquity of any source documents.
Traditional authorship is ascribed to books entitled after a name, such as Amos, Isaiah, Matthew, John etc.
Heterosexual and monogamous marriage as God-ordained,[17] and the belief in only specific biblical grounds for divorce.
The inspiration and preservation of the Scriptures
Reformed fundamentalists believe in the inspiration (theopneustia) and conservation of the entire scripture.[citation needed] The forerunning debates in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries resulted in the defence of the doctrine of the superintended plenary (full) organic inspiration of the scriptures, a doctrine confused and derided as 'mechanical' inspiration at the time.[citation needed]François Gaussen's defence of plenary inspiration has been one influential Protestant testimony. For conservative fundamentalist evangelicals, inspiration never ceased with the inaccessibility of the originals.
Since the scriptures are the work of God, "[s]peculation into the "how" of inspiration is a prying into what is not revealed [...] We are not told how God inspired the writers of the scriptures. It is probable that none could know save those who were so energized"[18] and the particular process of inspiration and the doctrine of scripture is likened to the incomprehensible (to reason) doctrines of the Trinity and incarnation.[19] The overarching salvific end of the scriptures (2 Tim. 3.15) is often emphasised, and that hermeneutical limitations do not subtract from the salvific end and Divine activity of the scriptures.[citation needed] Psalm 119.89 is shown to defend the eternal settling of the Bible. The verity of inspiration and purity of the words are predicated as resting upon the scripture itself, whether all the writers knew they were writing scripture or not.[20] The canon is considered the collection of inspired books that God alone intended to be the rule of faith, and laid on the consciences of Christians; other apostolic works, such as Paul's Epistle to the Laodiceans (Col. 4. 16), were therefore unintended to become a 'rule of faith' for the entire Christian community.[21]
Verbal inspiration, upheld by various Protestant churches, maintains that the individual backgrounds, personal traits, and literary styles of the writers and compilers were authentically theirs, but had been providentially prepared by God for use as His instrument in producing scripture.[citation needed] It is held that the normal exercise of endowed human abilities was unhindered[22] and that the process of inspiration was superintended so mysteriously, that every word written was the exact word God wanted to be written.[citation needed] Original words of scripture are considered to be of an 'holistic inspiration' (i.e. unable to be dissected into substance and form).[6] Copies and printed editions when free from scribal erratum, are handled as God-breathed and are the foundation of translation.[4][8][6] Therefore, the scripture is considered unfailing and blunder-exempt from within (ab intra).[citation needed] The biblical writer/prophet's scriptural familiarity is considered providentially prepared.[citation needed] Additionally, the languages in which the writing was completed, are considered as being perfectly adapted to the expression of God's 'divine thoughts.'[23]
The translations of the Greek New Testament and Hebrew Old Testament are considered the inspired word of God to the extent that they are a close, accurate rendering of the scriptures.[24] Wherever the English version of the testaments lies fairly within the confines of the original, the authority of the latest form is as great as that of the earliest.[25] In other words, inspiration is not considered as 'limited to that portion which lay within the horizon of the original scribes'.[26] The Bible's inspiration is made immediately apparent by the Holy Spirit to the believer only, who has been gifted the Spirit at salvation.[27]
Verbal preservation is defined by the retention of every canonical word in the original languages that God intended for future generations. It is held that not a single word, letter, accent, or character, in the originals has been lost to the Church.[citation needed] The preservation of scripture is considered complete, kept through the providentially-guided and continuous "normal" (regular) copying of scribes, and "singular" (special) transmission, compilation and printing.[citation needed]
The preservation of God's written word is contended as a faith position that Christ himself held (Matt. 5.18) and as detectable/locatable.[citation needed] Other scriptures that have been cited as documentary confirmation of God's preservation of the written Word are Matt. 5.18, Matt. 24.35, John 10.35, and 1 Pet. 1.25.[citation needed] Chapter 1.8 of the Westminster Confession of Faith speaks of the scriptures as being "by His singular care and providence, kept pure in all ages, [and] are therefore authentical."[28]
Faithful textual study is considered to confirm true textual recognition, and that diligent and devotional study renders the Christian's access to God's Word identical to what God's Word is ontologically.[citation needed] It is held, that as God providentially entrusted the transmittance of His Word through human scribes, God has also allowed His elect obvious referential textual access.[citation needed]John Owen and Francis Turretin (Reformed theologians) are championed as defenders of the traditional text preservation view of the Bible, the former writing; "[w]e add that the whole scripture entire, as given out from God, without any loss, is preserved in the Copies of the Originals yet remaining; What varieties there are among the Copies themselves shall be afterwards declared; in them all, we say, is every letter and Tittle of the Word"[29] Yet, Arminian theologians have defended the traditional readings too. The contextual case of Frederic Godet is one example.
Earlier and twentieth century conservative Protestants favoured Ben Chayyim's Masoretic texts,[30] affirming the consonantal text with vowel points, and the Byzantine Majority Text: singularly, the Received Text.[31] Particular and ordinary providence have been cited in support of the traditional texts of the Old and New Testaments. Providential preservation extending to the ecclesiastical copyists and scribes of the continuous centuries since the first century AD, to the Jewish scribe-scholars (including the Levites and later, the Qumranites and Masoretes), and to the orthodox and catholic scholars of the Renaissance and Reformation. This has been called a "high view" of preservation. The degree of ascription of textual purity to the (traditional) Vulgate and Eastern Orthodox liturgical tradition, is often a determining factor in the acceptance of some Byzantine-attested Received readings and early modern (English) Bible verses.[citation needed]William Fulke's parallel Bible (1611 KJV–Douay Rheims) showed great similarities and minor differences, and Benno A. Zuiddam's work on the Nova Vulgata shows the vast verbatim agreement between the TR and the (Clementine) Vulgate.[32] Robert Adam Boyd Received Text edition (The Greek Textus Receptus New Testament with manuscript annotations) shows the most common TR readings for the major TR editions. These variant TR readings are used by some scholars to evaluate the Authorised Version.[citation needed] The published notes of the King James translators, shown in Norton's New Cambridge Bible margin, indicate where they chose one TR reading over another. Rev. Jeffrey Riddle has identified three groups within contemporary traditional text advocacy, and distinguished between his traditional text advocacy and certain negative forms of "KJV-Onlyism" (e.g. "The Inspired KJV Group" and "The KJV As New Revelation"). Some defend the Complutensian New Testament, a likely influence on Erasmus and Stephanus et al, and the Greek Vatican manuscripts possessed by those editors; referencing John Mill's testimony that the Complutensian editors followed "one most ancient and correct [Vatican MSS] copy," Richard Smalbroke and other Puritans defended Byzantine 'minority readings' in the TR, including 1 John 5.7-8.[33] Due to the debate over the 'weighting' of Byzantine manuscripts, and questions over the 'counting' method and total number of Byzantine manuscripts surveyed by MT advocates, the few 'minority [Byzantine] readings' in the Received Text have been accepted over Majority Text readings. The identity of the Greek manuscripts used in the Complutensian New Testament are not known, nor all of the manuscripts of Erasmus and Stephanus.
The perceived ambiguities of the standard form of the Masoretic Text are subjected to de minimis,[citation needed] along with the orthographic variations with Qumran texts. The Torah might have been rendered or regressed into an already-extant, common and primitive Hebrew tongue (Ketav Ivri-Paleo-Hebrew), where the Ktav Ashuri (square Hebrew) restrictively originated early rather than late with Ezra, yet the specific transmission history of Ketav Ivri is at present undetermined.[34] The signs of the supposed antiquity of the Book of Job, the likely date of Job's patriarchal existence and the Hebrew form of the received book, strongly suggests to conservatives that Ktav Ashuri is ancient (i.e. significantly pre-exilic). The ultimate dominance and authority of the Masoretic Text is underscored by Christians and Jews despite Imperial Aramaic having a similar script: the implication of causation or independence has been debated since Rev. John Lightfoot. The consonantal-only text tradition, for example as shown by the Dead Sea Scrolls, has been debated since the Reformation; the existence of the consonantal text only could not disprove a restricted system of vowels (niqqud) predating the Masoretes, and the preservation and linguistic difficulties of a consonantal text with an oral tradition of vowels, led some to insist that the 'pure originals' contained or accompanied a vowel system (e.g. the Dean Burgon Society still advocates the originality of the received vowel points, in line with the reformed orthodox theologians).[35] The Trinitarian Bible Society believes the Masoretes providentially introduced the standard system of vowels,[36] imaginably upon precise vowel-vocalising tradition, veritable Jewish recitation practices (e.g. synagogues and homes), and lost and extant written records, including rabbinic commentaries (e.g. Mishnah-Tosefta, Houses of Hillel and Shammai traditions, Ezra's school of scribes etc.).
The Great Assembly (Neh. 9-10) is considered a landmark event in the timeline and transmission of the Old Testament canon. Any lack of explanation for the variations arising in the Septuagint (LXX) is not seen as evidence for an archaeologically-unattested Hebrew vorlage, in the same way variations in the Gospel accounts are not considered absolute proof of the hypothetical Q-source document[citation needed] or 'blind reproduction' by the synoptic writers.
Common principles of Reformation evangelical interpretation and private reading
Consultation of lexicons, grammars, concordances (Cruden's concordance), and the Hebrew and Greek testaments
Contextual grounding and reading in 'concentric circles' (verse-paragraph-chapter-book-genre-testament/covenant)[citation needed]
The analogy of faith (scriptura sui ipsius interpres, 'scripture interprets/informs scripture')[37]
The principle of non-contradiction.[38] (1) That God cannot contradict the scripture, (2) that scripture when rightly interpreted does not violate scripture.[citation needed]
Whilst received and used, the creeds and confessions are not considered as bearing equal authority to the Bible.[citation needed] The most notable Early Church Fathers have been recognised.
Eldership/governance and complementarian understanding and practice (e.g. may include male pulpit preaching and eldership, female-led children's ministry, gender-segregated groups and activities, women's head coverings, etc.).[42][43]
The two sacraments/ordinances of baptism and communion.[9] Free Presbyterian and Presbyterian churches practice believer's baptism (credobaptism) and infant baptism (paedobaptism) but Baptist and Independent Evangelical churches allow only believer's baptism.
Some discussion surrounding the dominant usage of an English translation exists, but primarily concerns the New Testament. However, despite the commonalities of the "ben Hayyim-Bombergiana" and modern Biblia Hebraica editions, some slight differences are observed in the body text. These differences are due to a modern preference, since Kittel and Kahle, for the Leningrad Codex (and Aleppo Codex) rather than the text of Jacob ben Chayyim, and the use of the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament), Dead Sea Scrolls and other ancient translations of the Old Testament (e.g. Samaritan Pentateuch, Targum, Vulgate, Peshitta).[44]Conjectural emendations of the Masoretic text in modern versions (e.g. NRSV, NIV; Prov. 26.23) are not admitted due to complete absence of manuscript support. Likewise, employment of ancient Old Testament versions beyond commentary, is not affirmed.[citation needed] The validity of the critical method of conjectural emendation is challenged. The Bomberg-Chayyim edition has been one of the most used and printed Masoretic texts in the world, along with the formatted and styled reproduced edition of Max Letteris.[45] In 1972, a reprint of Bomberg's 1525 Venice edition (with an introduction by Moshe Goshen-Gottstein) was published in Jerusalem by Makor Publishing, and the Trinitarian Bible Society print the Ginsburg edition, the ben Hayyim-Bombergiana furnished with a comprehensive Masorah (notes on the Masoretic Text by the Masoretes).[46] Ginsburg did not alter the text of ben Chayyim's 2nd edition[47] but agreed that 1 Joshua 21.36-37 were likely authentic, omitted due to a scribal error.[48] These verses were in the First Rabbinic Bible, and now also in recent editions of the Hebrew Bible. Chayyim's 2nd (Great) Rabbinic Bible lost primacy as a standard among mainstream critical scholars in the twentieth century, but has endured in fundamentalist denominations and independent evangelical churches with teaching institutions and academic facilities.[citation needed]
The Authorised Version Tradition, the Byzantine Received Text, and Eastern (Greek) and Western (Greco-Latin) Ecclesiastical Translation Traditions
Traditional conservative evangelicals exalted the King James Version, and held that the Textus Receptus (TR) was the honoured and restorative Greek text to Latin Church.[citation needed] The TR is now generally applied to the family of similar Byzantine-text Greek New Testaments, for example, the editions of Erasmus (first edition, Novum Instrumentum omne, 1516), Beza (first edition, Octavo, 1565) and Stephanus (notable third edition, Editio Regia, 1550). The editions published by Abraham and Bonaventure Elzivir, almost identical to the texts of Beza, became known as the Textus Receptus ('Received Text') due to a note in Heinsius' preface ("Therefore, you have the text now received by all [...]"), but Textus Receptus has also been commonly applied to the 1550 Stephanus edition.[49] The 47[50] translators of the 1611 KJV (AKJV) used the New Testaments of Erasmus, Stephanus and Beza, yet augmented with the Tyndale, Geneva (Whittingham), Complutensian Polyglot, Coverdale, Bishops' and Matthew Bibles.[51] Where KJV verses differed from modern versions, the Vulgate had been claimed as an influence; apologists for the KJV and Received Text translations, for example Dr. Ken Matto, list the Greek manuscript authorities that correspond to Received and Vulgate readings (e.g. Tit. 2.7; D 06, K 018, L 020), but not without criticism from eclectic textual scholars. KJV defenders reply by highlighting the influence of the Targum and Septuagint on modern Old Testament textual critics. Ben Chayyim's text was the Old Testament base text but it was supplemented with the first Rabbinic Bible (e.g. Josh. 21. 36-37). F. H. A. Scrivener prepared a close Greek text edition that likely lay behind the AKJV, using the editions of the TR that were extant at the time of the translators. Edward F. Hills believed Scrivener's text to be an "independent variety of the Textus Receptus" and where TR editions differed, Scrivener's text was to be taken as the authoritative and providential reading. The Authorised Version was edited in 1612, 1613, 1616, 1617, 1629, 1630, 1634, 1638, 1640, before the editions of 1762 (S. F. Paris, Cambridge Edition), 1769 (Benjamin Blayney, Oxford Edition) and 1873 (Scrivener, Cambridge Paragraph Bible).[52] Despite historical linguistic editorial changes, the 1611 text remained materially constant. Defenders of the Authorised Version call to attention that the early modern English grammar reflected the use of singular (e.g. 'thou,' 'thee,' 'thy' and 'thine') and plural (e.g. 'ye,' 'you,' 'your' and 'yours') second person pronouns in the Hebrew and Greek languages, Hebrew possessing separate masculine and feminine forms.[53] 1611 translator additions for the purpose of better rendering sentences were in smaller roman type, but in Blayney's Oxford edition, italics were used instead. Several italic decisions of the Oxford edition have since been changed (e.g. 1 John 2.23).
Modern versions, denominational preferences and translation controversies
The Thomas Nelson publication of the New King James Version (1982) was a minor development within the movement. The Revised Authorised Version is the British edition, published by Samuel Bagster & Co. The preface to the NKJV states that the New Testament is based upon the same New Testament selection behind the KJV.[55] The translators remove older English words and the second person pronoun distinctions, detach from some of the "damnation language," include a great number of exclamation marks (e.g. see the Psalms)[56] and headings, and enlarge the number of pronoun capitalisations of Divine persons. The Old Testament does depart from several textual choices of the KJV (e.g. 1 Sam 13.1, 1 Chron. 7.28), the translators preferring the Biblia Hebraica and Ketiv/Qere in places.[57] The NKJV includes in the footnotes where the translated Greek text differs from the critical text (minority text) and recent majority text: the accommodation to include references to critical editions of the New Testament continues to divide opinion and source discussion, as do references to Ben Asher's text and ancient versions.[56] NKJV Reader's editions exclude all textual footnotes. A small number of New Testament readings questionably approach eclectic readings[58] and lately the KJV 2016, Simplified KJV, and MEV have been viewed as qualified and modernised alternatives. In congregational teaching and preaching, ministers have used Received Text translations with an informed awareness of modern translation and versions, and have utilised the KJV, its language, and the works of Protestants steeped in the KJV, in personal study, private devotion and prayers: for example, Dr. Martyn Lloyd-Jones publicly read from the Authorised Version, but made direct reference to alternative revised translations and contemporary terms.[59] Spurgeon and Lloyd-Jones represent reformed circles that believe the KJV is the English standard, one that is capable of English improvement in select cases, but close to the original languages. Mental paraphrasing of the KJV is practised when reciting and for silent reading.
Some fundamentalists do use translations based upon the earliest dated extant manuscripts, such as the NRSV, ESV and NASB, the NASB being stylistically similar to the NKJV. The proliferation of the New International Version (NIV) has been observed with censure,[60] but the ability for various translations to lead an individual to saving faith in Christ is freely admitted. Many affirm the stylistic standard of prior versions.[61] The Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster uses the Authorised Version, '[b]elieving it to be the most reliable translation,'[62] the Bible Spreading Union promote the Authorised Version, the Calvary Chapel Association prefer the NKJV and KJV,[63] and the (British) Affirmation 2010 states, "[t]he authentic and preserved Texts are the Hebrew Masoretic and Greek Received Texts, and these are the Texts which underlie the Authorized Version, which is by far the best and most accurate English translation of God’s infallible and inerrant Word currently in use".[64] The Trinitarian Bible Society promote Scrivener's Received Text for the purposes of translation and mission.[65] Translations with a lower reading level are in some churches chosen for the pews. Thomas Nelson publish and promote the Byzantine-based translations (KJV, NKJV) as well as Alexandrian-based translations (ASV, RSV).
Evangelicals recognise the strong commitment to scriptural inspiration and sound orthodox doctrine of earlier translators, and the need for the Christian to be a regular reader of the Bible. Unnecessary division over translation (e.g. Ruckmanism, intertextualism) has been internally condemned.[66] It is emphasised that the written word is a means by which Christians know the incarnate Word (Christ Jesus) more intimately.[citation needed]
A combination of evidences, Bible apologetics, and pre-suppositional arguments for Christian faith, within the framework of a conservative theology, have been advanced.
The individual's perception of the creation leaves them without an excuse regarding the Creator's existence (Rom. 1.20).[67] Pauline argumentation, as found in the Acts and the Epistles (particularly Romans), is exalted; Paul's sermon on the Areopagus in Acts 17 is the combination of natural theology and gospel preaching.[citation needed]
The Law, 'written on the hearts,' gives humans an active conscience and makes them aware of God's moral standards[citation needed]
The moral transformation of 'born again' individuals,[citation needed] and the quickening of social conscience (e.g. Factory Acts, abolitionist movement etc.)[citation needed]
The remarkable preservation and survival of the Jewish people since the birth of the Christian Church[68]
The formation of many charities and associations for the poor and unrepresented as a result of gospel missionary zeal.[citation needed] The Wesleyan revival is considered the exemplar demonstration of evangelical protestant social action.[citation needed]
The dignity of Christian marriage (life-long monogamy) and the demographic stability and child security[citation needed]
The unparalleled reforming impact of the Bible on individuals, law-making,[69] literature and liberty[citation needed]
The fine-tuning of the universe for life in relation to the Earth, and the stability and regularity of cosmic constants. The observance of cosmic laws correlated with God as the law-giver in the Mosaic Pentateuch.[citation needed]
A common Christian faith generates social cohesion and trust, and local churches provide a venue for community, gathering and relationships[70]
The moral and intellectual insufficiency of humans and the reluctance of critics to affirm authentic external verification and internal textual evidence[citation needed]
The Gospels as unique Christian historiography[76] but harmonious with ancient historical trends and customs (Jewish and Gentile). The shared characteristics of the Gospels has led to the view they were written after the pattern of the Old Testament ancient Hebrew (prophetic) oracles[77] rather than simple Greco-Roman biography.
The Bible as preserving, maturing, growing and edifying the gift of faith[78]
Liberal-modernist challenge to verbal inspiration and truthfulness of scripture
The rise and challenge of theological liberalism in the nineteenth century led to the modern inerrancy movement. B. B. Warfield of Princeton Theological Seminary was a key figure in the development of the movement. The early fundamentalists, believing in the infallibility of the Bible, contributed to the defence of the Bible and welcomed the findings and published works of Christians who presupposed the Bible to be fully true. The "Conservative Resurgence" in the Southern Baptist Convention and the founding of conservative seminaries (e.g. Westminster Theological Seminary, Whitefield Theological Seminary, Dallas Theological Seminary, Reformed Theological Seminary, etc.) propagated the fundamentalist response to challenges to biblical authority. It is common for those affiliated with conservative churches and denominations to use resolutions/harmonisations apologetically. Defenders of inerrancy argue the acceptance of biblical errancy opens the route to the general denial of revelation, subjective claims dogmatically advanced, revision of the nature of history, unwarranted over-reliance on scholarship, and presumption against (ancient) attested sources.
Conservatives have contended that the number of discrepancies is exaggerated by critics, and the apparent nature of many of them is determinable.[79] However, evangelicals have freely acknowledged that the Bible cannot be wholly proven, and that not all particulars, nor methodologies, are readily available to reconcile the few 'difficulties;'[79]difficulties has been favoured as a term to describe passages in dispute.[citation needed] Christ's statements in the Gospels regarding Old Testament events have been seen as superior to modern critical judgements.[79] Conservatives contend that texts must be allowed to stand as they reflect the diverse inspired multi-purposes of the penmen, lying characters, progressive toponymy, rhetoric contradiction (Prov. 26.4-5) and as they test faith and incentivise close reading of the Bible.
Examples of replies to accusations of erroneous statements and teaching:
The genealogies of Christ in the Gospels. Matthew 1 and Luke 3; Luke is recording Mary’s genealogy and Matthew is recording Joseph’s.[citation needed]
The numbers involved in the Exodus; Colin J. Humphreys argues that the Hebrew word commonly translated as thousand had an earlier primitive meaning of clan.[citation needed]
Examples of responses to accusations of inconsistencies and contradiction:
Faith and Works. Ephesians 2.8-9 and James 2.24; the 'faith' that James speaks of is not a 'saving faith'.[citation needed]
Angelic appearances in the Resurrection accounts. Matthew 28.2-7, Mark 16.5-7, Luke 24.4-7, John 20.12: Matthew and Mark do not explicitly deny the existence of a second angel.[citation needed]
Modern biblical criticism
John 7:53–8:11 (Pericope Adulterae) and Mark 16:9–20 (the last twelve verses of Mark) have been defended as authentic.[80] 1 John 5:7–8 (Comma Johanneum) is excluded from the critical texts and most modern translations,[80] but has become a focal point of discussion on the primitive Latin-Vulgate textual sources (e.g. Vetus Latina) and the moral integrity of the classical trinitarians. Calvin cites the comma in Book III of The Institutes.[citation needed] Assumptions on the transmission of the New Testament text determine acceptance of the Johannine Comma. Modern mainstream textual criticism has caused discord since the theories and methodology of eclecticism have long been seen as defective to traditional text adherents,[81] for example the principle that scribal copyists tend to interpolate rather than omit,[82] and the alleged recensionist Greek New Testament text and critical readings of Lucian of Antioch, the latter rejected by Jerome.[83]Arian and heterodox corruptions of the New Testament and inattentions of transcribers in the Eastern Mediterranean region, have been associated with the later-rejected minority-eclectic readings.[84] Eclectic scholars are charged with ignoring and rejecting the Byzantine faction's 'tests' of textual authenticity.[citation needed] Traditional text adherents do not believe the New Testament requires the eclectic "scientific" approach, calling to attention the gaps in early textual transmission history and the conclusions of scholars who openly reject the evangelical view of the Bible.[85]
Reformed fundamentalist pastors and theologians have seen biblical criticism and radical higher criticism as proceeding from unbelief in the Divine activity behind scripture, and considered it one of the chief culprits behind the decline of conservative scholarship in Western theological colleges and churches,[86] and Bible preaching. Ian Paisley strongly associated it with infidelity and the decline of Christendom.[87] Conservatives see rationalistic methods combined with linguistic criticism as fatally flawed,[citation needed] and affirm the Bible was faithfully transmitted without the alleged gross interpolations of the critics, containing no inauthentic works.[citation needed]
Rienk Kuiper, E. J. Poole-Connor and Ian Paisley, believed that the Protestant evangelical Church was entering into apostasy, apostasy that could culminate in the coming of the "man of sin" (2 Thess. 2).[citation needed] The increase in the departure from "Bible Protestantism" and Christian teachings, has led Christians to anticipate the coming again of Christ.[citation needed]
Culturally, reformed fundamentalists have often aligned themselves against scientism, and are opposed to and sceptical of the methods of anti-theist researchers.[89]Paul Copan has argued that the position of the scientific naturalist is self-refuting because scientism itself cannot be verified according to the scientific method.[90]
Neo-orthodoxy's anti-confessional denial that the Bible is ontologically the Word of God, is considered to produce the same consequences as liberalism.[citation needed] Dutch theologian Cornelius Van Til wrote extensively on the theology of Karl Barth (i.e. Barthianism), particularly Barth's doctrine of scripture.
Criticism of New-Neo Evangelicalism and the 'Present Downgrade'
Throughout the twentieth century, opposition was made to both New and Neo Evangelicalism. Evangelical futurists have associated New-Neo Evangelicalism with the Great Apostasy, introduced in the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians. Some charge neo-evangelicals with a lack of belief and trust in the power and message of the Bible in its vernacular form and original texts.
New Evangelical departures from Reformational principles and doctrine, precipitated ministerial separation. Conservative evangelicals have opposed female ordination, homosexual practice and gay marriage, transgenderism (gender deconstructionism), and trends in moderate evangelicalism (decision salvation, experientialism, theologically-light worship etc.). Wayne A. Grudem has controversially predicted that (new) evangelical feminism is a path to theological liberalism, and the downgrade of the Biblical testimony and decline of denominational evangelicalism.[92] Female pastors and ministers are considered a violation of Paul's instructions in 1 Tim. 2, and contrary to gender representation in the Old and New Testaments (rooted in the Adam and Eve account).
Conservative evangelicals have had reservations about some aspects of the Charismatic movement, including the genuineness of certain experiences, but Charismatic emphasis upon renewal, the Spirit, Christian freedom, and healing and spiritual gifts has been welcomed. Some challenge the restoration of apostolic tongues and authenticity of many 'prophetic' behaviours and words.[citation needed]Dr. Lloyd-Jones did not affirm cessationism.
New calls for separation since the end of COVID-19 lockdowns from churches and denominations that are opposed to Reformational Protestant hermeneutics (e.g. historical-literal-grammatical) and biblical authority have been made to preserve the western remnant of conservative biblical Christianity. The process of separation from new 'Progressive-Critical-Radical' theology has begun in several reformed and conservative denominations.[citation needed] Rev. Eric Mason and Owen Strachan have criticised "Woke Church"[93] and "Wokeness"[94] in Christian churches, and John MacArthur and Voddie Baucham have criticised the "Social Justice Movement."
Materialist and naturalist unbelief, and historic Adamism and creationism
Absolute naturalistic theories and methods have been markedly opposed since Charles Darwin's publication, On the Origin of Species, in 1859.
Christian scholars such as A. J. Monty White, Edwin M. Yamauchi and Reijer Hooykaas[95] have been critical of inconsistent, exclusive uniformitarian views.[96] Catastrophism is considered the reliable pre-supposition. A. J. Monty White and others,[citation needed] criticise the exploitation of dating methods (e.g. radiometric techniques) that project 'soulish' man's origin beyond a genealogical estimate for Adam's formation, and the early biblical civilisation.[citation needed] Recognising that Genesis 1 to 3 'moves on a plane that transcends [...] mundane evaluation,' Emil Kraeling contended that a reasonable locus of any archaeological debate over the correlation between the well-attested, settled history of mankind and the story of Genesis ought to be 'from the moment [...] Adam is commanded to till the earth' and the settled, cultivated living of Cain and Abel.[97] The use of DNA sequencing to conjecture 'molecular clocks' and phylogenetic trees, has been critically challenged,[98] and the incredulity of belief in the statistical cosmic improbability of speciation is insisted by some biblical creationists.[99] Notable Pauline exponents have interpreted the apostle Paul as prescribing a historical Adam,[citation needed] and Christian commentators and genealogists of the Book of Genesis have contended that Adam and immediate posterity, are not intimated as being from the proposed high antiquity of modern thinkers.[citation needed]
Paisley and other fundamentalists were committed, public creationists, Paisley interpreting the days of Genesis as 'ordinary,' yet he preached on the Chaos-Restitution (Gap) interpretation,[100] a view previously held by John Wesley, Thomas Chalmers and others.[citation needed] Fundamentalist creationism has become synonymous with young-earth creationism, yet the reformed tradition has encompassed old earth, including young biosphere and gap creationism.[citation needed] Those who interpreted the Bible as intimating time before Gen. 1.3 (Day 1) of the Genesis Week, considered the implication of the earth's prior temporary stasis.[101] Thus, any anterior, animated creative sequence(s) of the earth (i.e. Genesis 1 as a reconstitution of life prior to the introduction of mankind) was cordially debated on exegetical (e.g. Gen. 7.17-24, Exod. 20.11)[102][103] and paleontological (e.g. 'living fossils', the dinosaurs' demise, features of extant and recently-extinct animals etc.) grounds.[citation needed] The works of Charles Hodge (Systematic Theology, Vol. II) and Herman Bavinck (Reformed Dogmatics, Vol. II) on creation have influenced Reformed communities. Incomplete Hebrew knowledge and understanding of purposes, leads to inadequate translation and interpretation, and the limitations of contemporary scientific methods/consensus and historical mutability of science, also produces a reverent appraisal in the early chapters of the Bible and faith in the God of scripture.[citation needed]William Buckland, François Gaussen, John Harris, John Burgon, Charles H. Spurgeon,[104]Paton James Gloag, James Gall, R. A. Torrey and Gleason Archer Jr. also professed a non-exhaustive historical approach to Genesis 1 to 3. A dynamic antediluvian period (e.g. volcanic-tectonic activity, floods, landslides, tsunamis, high sedimentation and subsistence rates etc.) and Noahic deluge, were debated as causes of novel geological phenomena, including the formation of certain sedimentary strata, and by extension, an explanation of certain fossils and any pressure-induced impact on chemical elements in fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks.[105]Prof. Edgar Andrews is contemporarily associated with this form of cataclysmic geology, and the highest known rates of permineralization, replacement and compression of mammalian skeletal remains, have been contemporarily correlated with the biblical genealogical timespan.[citation needed] Critical doubt concerning the animalian source, antiquity and modern human relevance of trace fossils, singularly the alleged hominin footprints, exists too.[106] The marked lack and obscurity of ancient Homo sapiens trace fossils is similarly identified. Watchman Nee among others, asserted a "mystery" to the Genesis account.[107] Creation has also been affirmed as an important foundation of redemptive faith, and sincere history is considered to commence with 'developed man;' the distinctive Biblical history's revelation of the generation of Adam is appraised as satisfaction of an authentic and prophetic historical record, partially reflected in ANE literature.[citation needed] The written scriptural details when interpreted, are considered the only source of any (necessary) dogmatic affirmations.[108]
Current Western accentuation on the remote beginning of life and the cosmos (i.e. etiology, including cosmogenesis and anthropogeny), and the historical traditions of information societies, are seen as driving factors in the elevation of evolutionary theories in opposition to the actual existence of a creator God.[citation needed] Criticisms of the present incentives (pecuniary and philosophical) of scientific institutions in determining research, have been made. Attention has been drawn to secular hostility to teleology, the development of scientific theology (e.g. theobiology and theophysics)[citation needed] and the creation science movement.
The New Testament (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events relating to first-century Christianity. The New Testament's background, the first division of the Christian Bible, is called the Old Testament, which is based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible; together they are regarded as sacred scripture by Christians.
The New International Version (NIV) is a translation of the Bible into contemporary English. Published by Biblica, the complete NIV was released in 1978 with a minor revision in 1984 and a major revision in 2011. The NIV relies on recently-published critical editions of the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts.
Propitiation is the act of appeasing or making well-disposed a deity, thus incurring divine favor or avoiding divine retribution. It is related to the idea of atonement and sometime mistakenly conflated with expiation. The discussion here encompasses usage only in the Christian tradition.
Sola scriptura is a Christian theological doctrine held by most Protestant Christian denominations, in particular the Lutheran and Reformed traditions, that posits the Bible as the sole infallible source of authority for Christian faith and practice. The Catholic Church considers it heterodox and generally the Orthodox churches consider it to be contrary to the phronema of the Church.
Biblical inerrancy is the belief that the Bible "is without error or fault in all its teaching"; or, at least, that "Scripture in the original manuscripts does not affirm anything that is contrary to fact". Some equate inerrancy with biblical infallibility; others do not.
The King James Only movement asserts the belief that the King James Version (KJV) of the Bible is superior to all other translations of the Bible. Adherents of the King James Only movement, mostly members of Conservative Anabaptist, traditionalist Anglo-Catholics, Conservative Holiness Methodist and some Baptist churches, believe that the KJV needs no further improvements because it is the greatest English translation of the Bible which was ever published, and they also believe that all other English translations of the Bible which were published after the KJV was published are corrupt.
Biblical studies is the academic application of a set of diverse disciplines to the study of the Bible. For its theory and methods, the field draws on disciplines ranging from ancient history, historical criticism, philology, theology, textual criticism, literary criticism, historical backgrounds, mythology, and comparative religion.
The Joseph Smith Translation (JST), also called the Inspired Version of the Holy Scriptures (IV), is a revision of the Bible by Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, who said that the JST/IV was intended to restore what he described as "many important points touching the salvation of men, [that] had been taken from the Bible, or lost before it was compiled". Smith was killed before he deemed it complete, though most of his work on it was performed about a decade beforehand. The work is the King James Version of the Bible (KJV) with some significant additions and revisions. It is considered a sacred text and is part of the canon of Community of Christ (CoC), formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, and other Latter Day Saint churches. Selections from the Joseph Smith Translation are also included in the footnotes and the appendix of the Latter-day Saint edition of the
The New American Standard Bible is a translation of the Bible in contemporary English. Published by the Lockman Foundation, the complete NASB was released in 1971. A new revisions were published in 1995 and 2020. The NASB relies on recently published critical editions of the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts. It is known for preferring a literal translation style that generally preserves the structure of the original language when possible, rather than an idiomatic style that attempts to match natural English usage.
Modern English Bible translations consists of English Bible translations developed and published throughout the late modern period to the present.
Biblical inspiration is the doctrine in Christian theology that the human writers and canonizers of the Bible were led by God with the result that their writings may be designated in some sense the word of God. This belief is traditionally associated with concepts of the biblical infallibility and the internal consistency of the Bible.
Biblical literalism or biblicism is a term used differently by different authors concerning biblical interpretation. It can equate to the dictionary definition of literalism: "adherence to the exact letter or the literal sense", where literal means "in accordance with, involving, or being the primary or strict meaning of the word or words; not figurative or metaphorical".
There have been various debates concerning the proper family of biblical manuscripts and translation techniques that should be used to translate the Bible into other languages. Biblical translation has been employed since the first translations were made from the Hebrew Bible into Greek and Aramaic. Until the Late Middle Ages, the Western Church used the Latin Vulgate almost entirely while the Eastern Church, centered in Constantinople, mostly used the Greek Byzantine text. Beginning in the 14th century, there have been increasing numbers of vernacular translations into various languages. With the development of modern printing techniques, these increased enormously.
Bibliolatry is the worship of a book, idolatrous homage to a book, or the deifying of a book. It is a form of idolatry. The sacred texts of some religions disallow icon worship, but over time the texts themselves are treated as sacred the way idols are, and believers may end up effectively worshipping the book. Bibliolatry extends claims of inerrancy—hence perfection—to the texts, precluding theological innovation, evolving development, or progress. Bibliolatry can lead to revivalism, disallows re-probation, and can lead to persecution of unpopular doctrines.
The Trinitarian Bible Society was founded in 1831 "to promote the Glory of God and the salvation of men by circulating, both at home and abroad, in dependence on the Divine blessing, the Holy Scriptures, which are given by inspiration of God and are able to make men wise unto salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus."
Biblical unitarianism is a Unitarian Christian denomination whose adherents affirm the Bible as their sole authority, and from it base their beliefs that God the Father is one singular being, and that Jesus Christ is God's son but not divine. The term "biblical Unitarianism" is connected first with Robert Spears and Samuel Sharpe of the Christian Life magazine in the 1880s. It is a neologism that gained increasing currency in nontrinitarian literature during the 20th century as the Unitarian churches moved away from mainstream church traditions and, in some instances in the United States, towards merger with Universalism. It has been used since the late 19th century by conservative Christian Unitarians, and sometimes by historians, to refer to scripture-fundamentalist Unitarians of the 16th–18th centuries.
Zane Clark Hodges was an American pastor, seminary professor, and Bible scholar.
Christian theology is the theology – the systematic study of the divine and religion – of Christianity and Christian belief and practice. It concentrates primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament and of the New Testament, as well as on Christian tradition. Christian theologians use biblical exegesis, rational analysis and argument. Theologians may undertake the study of Christian theology for a variety of reasons, such as in order to:
The Bible-Presbyterian Church ("BPC") was a conservative reformed denomination in Singapore. It existed from 1955 to 1988, following the history of the country, as the Bible-Presbyterian Church of Malaya, then the Bible-Presbyterian Church of Singapore and Malaysia, and finally the Bible Presbyterian Church of Singapore ("BPCOS") before the BPCOS dissolved in 1988. Since that time, Bible-Presbyterian churches in Singapore have continued to exist separately. The B-P movement grew out of the Bible Presbyterian Church in the United States. As of 2009, there were 20,000 members in 32 B–P churches in Singapore. The number of B-P churches in Singapore has grown to forty-three as of 2020/21.
In Protestant theology, verbal plenary preservation (VPP) is a doctrine concerning the nature of the Bible. While verbal plenary inspiration (VPI) applies only to the original autographs of the Bible manuscript, VPP views that, "the whole of scripture with all its words even to the jot and tittle is perfectly preserved by God in the apographs without any loss of the original words, prophecies, promises, commandments, doctrines, and truths, not only in the words of salvation, but also the words of history, geography and science; and every book, every chapter, every verse, every word, every syllable, every letter is infallibly preserved by the Lord Himself to the last iota so that the Bible is not only infallible and inerrant in the past, but also infallible and inerrant today ."
↑ "Issues Today". freepresbyterian.org. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
↑ Kelly, William (2007). God's Inspiration of the Scriptures (1sted.). London: Scripture Truth Publications. p.44.
↑ Packer, Jim (1958). Fundamentalism and the Word of God (1sted.). WM. B. Eerdmans. p.76.
↑ Packer, Jim (1958). Fundamentalism and the Word of God. WM. B. Eerdmans. p.78.
↑ Hodge, Charles (2020). Systematic Theology. Hendrickson Publishers. pp.182–183. ISBN978-1-56563-459-6.
↑ Packer, Jim (1958). Fundamentalism and the Word of God (1sted.). WM. B. Eerdmans. p.78.
↑ Hills, Edward F. (1997). The King James Version Defended (4thed.). Christian Research Press. p.73.
↑ Torrey, Reuben Archer (2016). The Fundamental Doctrines of the Christian Faith. CrossReach Publications. pp.12–13.
↑ Waller, Charles Henry (1887). The Authoritative Inspiration of Holy Scripture, as distinct from the Inspiration of its Human Authors. Blackie and Son. pp.216–217.
↑ Waller, Charles Henry (1887). The Authoritative Inspiration of Holy Scripture, as distinct from the Inspiration of its Human Authors. pp.216–217.
↑ Zuiddam, Benno A. (2018). "The New Vulgate and the "Missing" Verses: Do All Changes Lead to Rome?". Neotestamentica NTSSA. 52 (2): 433–470. doi:10.1353/neo.2018.0024. S2CID166687235.
↑ Smalbroke, Richard (1824). An Enquiry into the Authority of the Primitive Complutensian Edition of the New Testament.
↑ The New Testament with Psalms & Proverbs. King James Version. Peabody, MA. 2016. ISBN978-1-59856-242-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
↑ Mason, Eric (2018). Woke Church: An Urgent Call for Christians in America to Confront Racism and Injustice. Moody Publishers.
↑ Strachan, Owen (2021). Christianity and Wokeness How the Social Justice Movement Is Hijacking the Gospel - and the Way to Stop It. Salem Books.
↑ Hooykaas, Reijer (1963). Natural law and Divine Miracle: the Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology and Theology. Netherlands: Brill Publishers. pp.206–226.
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