Alexander III of Macedon defeats the armies of the Achaemenid Empire in the Battle of Issus.
323 BC
10/11 June
Alexander III dies in Babylon, triggering a division of his empire including present-day Turkey, among his generals in a treaty known as the Partition of Triparadisus.
2nd century BCE
Year
Date
Event
133 BC
The Roman invasion of Anatolia begins with the annexation of Attalid Pergamon by the Roman Republic. The entire region is later brought under Roman rule. For the next few centuries, under Roman rule, the region becomes prosperous, roads and infrastructure are built and improved and coastal communities flourish.[2]
Süleyman I of Rum tries to add Syria to his realm. But he commits suicide after being defeated by his cousin Tutush I in the Battle of Ain Salm, Syria.
Kılıç Arslan conquers Musul, Iraq, but is defeated in the battle.
1110
Şahinşah (1107–1116) (also called Melikşah, not to be confused with the sultan of Great Seljuk Empire with the same name) Continuous struggle with the Crusades weakens the state.
1116
Mesut I (1116–1156) During the early years of his reign he has to accept the dominance of Danishmends a rival Turkish state in Anatolia.
1142
Mehmed of Danishmends dies and the Sultanate of Rum become the leading power of Anatolia for the second time.
Kılıç Arslan II annexes Danishmend realm. (Sivas, and the surrounding territory, Central Anatolia.)
1186
Kılıç Arslan II partitions the country into 11 provinces, each governed by one of his sons
1190
Holy Roman EmperorFrederick I Barbarossa of Third Crusade crosses West Anatolia. While main Turkish army avoids conflict, several irregular troops try to fight, but are repelled. Temporary German occupation of capital Konya.
1190
Frederick Barbarossa of Third Crusade dies near Silifke, Mersin Province in South Anatolia.
Sadettin Köpek the vizier of the inexperienced sultan who has executed some members of Seljuk house and becomes the de facto ruler of the sultanate is killed.
1239
Revolt of Baba Ishak. A revolt of Turkmen (Oguz) and Harzem refugees who have recently arrived in Anatolia. The revolt is suppressed. But the sultanate loses power.
Bayju of Mongols defeats Keyhüsrev II in the battle of Kösedağ, Eastern Anatolia. From now on, the sultanate is a vassal of Ilkhanids.
1246
Keykavus II (1246–1262) Governs together with his two brothers. But the real ruler is vizierPervâne who has married to late sultan's widow Gürcü Hatun.
Karamanoğlu Mehmed Bey conquers Konya and enthrones his puppet Jimri. But Ilkhanids intervene and reestablish Keyhüsrev's reign. (During his short stay in Konya Mehmed Bey declares Turkish as the official language in his realm).
Osman I, founder of the Ottoman Empire, begin the Ottoman history. (According to Halil İnalcık, expert on Ottoman history, Ottoman Empire was founded in 1302 not 1299.)[3]
Gedik Ahmet Pasha captures Otranto, the southeast corner of Italy, as a base for further attacks on Italy (only to evacuate after the death of Mehmet II).
Crimean War: The Crimean War with Russia began which, though won with British, French and Sardinian aid, would further demonstrate how backward the Ottoman military had become.
1860
21 October
First newspaper in Turkish published by Agah Efendi.(Tercümen'ı Ahval).
1862
5 February
A united Romanian autonomous state is established.
Assyrian genocide (Seyfo or Sayfo) by the Ottoman Empire, lasts till about 1924. Approximately 250,000 Assyrian Christians believed to have been killed.
1914
2 August
The Ottoman Empire enters into World War I on the side of the Central Powers. Cyprus is annexed outright by Britain.
1915
18 March
The Gallipoli Campaign was considered one of the greatest victories of the Turks at World War 1 and was reflected on as a major failure by the Allies.
The Union of Education (Tevhid-i Tedrisat) Law was passed.
The Ministry of Religious Affairs and all religious schools were abolished.
6 March
Second cabinet, again by İsmet İnönü
8 April
Religious courts were abolished and replaced with civil courts.
20 April
A new Turkish constitution was accepted.
26 August
Türkiye İş Bankası was established.
30 October
The generals who were also in parliament were asked to choose either military profession or politics but not both. (This event is known as the crisies of generals.) Only Prime Minister İsmet İnönü retains his title as General and remains in politics as Prime Minister.
A law separating religion from politics was accepted and passed in the TBMM.
4 March
Fourth cabinet by İsmet İnönü
5 May
An Armenian named Manok Manukyan was executed in Ankara for planning an assassination attempt on Mustafa Kemal.
3 June
The Progressive Republican Party was closed and abolished for supposedly exploiting religion for political purposes. Republican Peoples Party of the governing elites remains as the only political organization in the country. According to "Takrir-i Sukun" law, all opposition newspapers are also banned and closed indefinitely and Turkish "Republic" becomes one of the first dictatorships in Europe.
Mustafa Fehmi Kubilay, a second lieutenant in the Turkish army, was killed in a reactionary uprising.
1931
16 March
The first female Turkish surgeon, Dr. Suat, received her specialty.
26 March
The Measurements Law was accepted, abolishing the former Arabic length and weight measurement units and replacing them with the metric system (kilogram instead of okka, meter instead of endaze, etc.)
20 April
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk historically declared the slogan "Peace at home, peace in the world!"
The Hagia Sophia mosque was converted to the Ayasofya (Hagia Sophia) Museum.
5 December
Turkish women were granted the right to vote and be elected in Turkish parliamentary elections. (Afterwards, in the first elections, 18 women were elected to the Turkish Grand National Assembly).
1935
1 March
Eight cabinet by İsmet İnönü.
1936
29 May
A law determining the size and ratios of the star and crescent in the Turkish flag was accepted.
8 June
A labor law was accepted which represented the first step towards the Turkish Social Security System.
A law establishing a medical faculty in Ankara was accepted.
20 September
Atatürk opened the first art gallery in his residence, the Dolmabahce Palace.
9 October
Atatürk opened the Nazilli Printed Cloth Fabric Factory.
25 October
Ninth cabinet by Celâl Bayar, former minister of Economy
Dersim Rebellion in 1937–1938: The revolt had quashed by government.
1938
10 November
The founder Mustafa Kemal Atatürk died. He was succeeded by İsmet İnönü, former prime minister and general. He declares himself "National Chief" (Millî Şef), similar to the titles of some other dictators in Europe at the time.
1939
World War II: World War II began. Turkey was to remain neutral for most of the war, until a declaration of war against Germany at its end.
First Democratic Elections in Turkish Republic. General İsmet İnönü and his Republican People's Party, which had ruled the country since 1923, loses election to newly formed Democratic Party of Celâl Bayar and Adnan Menderes.
25 June
Korean War: The Korean War began. Turkey was a part of the joint UN operation.
Istanbul Pogrom: The Istanbul Pogrom started the process of driving many Greeks and Christians from Turkey.
7 September
Istanbul Pogrom: The pogrom drew to a close.
1960
27 May
38 officers of Army form a junta and organize the 1960 Turkish coup d'état. They claim the Islamists had gained influence in the government. After this clash over the "separation of religion and state/government" between İnönü's Republican People's Party and his opponents, democratically elected President Celâl Bayar and Prime Minister Adnan Menderes of Democratic Party, Prime Minister Adnan Menderes was held responsible by a kangaroo court selected by the junta and was executed with two of his ministers.
1965
14 October
Military rule bowed out to civilian rule, and former Millî Şef (National Chief) İsmet İnönü again loses a democratic election, this time to the Justice Party of Mr. Süleyman Demirel.
1971
12 March
Military officials forced an advisory committee on the government due to the increasing anarchical situation caused by the Right (fascist/capitalist) – Left (communist) clash and ineffective policies in maintaining order. Although the military were not in charge they had significant influence.
1974
Turkey invaded Cyprus in response to a Greek-backed coup on the island.
1980
12 September
The 1980 coup d'état took place. Martial law was almost immediately established and a quarter of the military (about 475,000) were mobilised to settle the resistance to the coup.
1983
6 November
After the establishment of a new 1982 Constitution, the military regime dissolved itself.
The Turkish Armed Forces are the military forces of the Republic of Turkey. The Turkish Armed Forces consist of the Land Forces, the Naval Forces and the Air Forces. The Chief of the General Staff is the Commander of the Armed Forces. In wartime, the Chief of the General Staff acts as the Commander-in-Chief on behalf of the President, who represents the Supreme Military Command of the TAF on behalf of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Coordinating the military relations of the TAF with other NATO member states and friendly states is the responsibility of the General Staff.
Anti-Turkish sentiment, also known as Anti-Turkism, or Turkophobia is hostility, intolerance, or xenophobia against Turkish people, Turkish culture and the Turkish language.
Assyrians in Turkey or Turkish Assyrians are an indigenous Semitic-speaking ethnic group and minority of Turkey who are Eastern Aramaic–speaking Christians, with most being members of the Syriac Orthodox Church, Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Pentecostal Church, Assyrian Evangelical Church, or Ancient Church of the East.
İlber Ortaylı is a Turkish historian and professor of history of Crimean Tatar origin at the MEF University, Galatasaray University in Istanbul and at Bilkent University in Ankara. In 2005, he was appointed as the director of the Topkapı Museum in Istanbul, until he retired in 2012.
The State of Israel and the Republic of Turkey formally established diplomatic relations in March 1949. Less than a year after the Israeli Declaration of Independence, Turkey recognized Israeli sovereignty, making it the world's first Muslim-majority country to do so. Both countries gave high priority to bilateral cooperation in the areas of diplomacy and military/strategic ties, while sharing concerns with respect to the regional instabilities in the Middle East. In recent decades, particularly under Turkey's Erdoğan administration, the two countries' relationship with each other has deteriorated considerably. However, diplomatic ties were reinstated after a normalization initiative in mid-2022. Relations soured again after the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel, Turkey condemning Israel and condoning Hamas.
Relations have always been strong between Azerbaijan and Turkey, the only two predominantly Turkic countries located west of the Caspian Sea. Former Azerbaijani president Heydar Aliyev often described the two as being "one nation, two states."
Halil İnalcık was a Turkish historian. His highly influential research centered on social and economic approaches to the Ottoman Empire. His academic career started at Ankara University, where he completed his PhD and worked between 1940 and 1972. Between 1972 and 1986 he taught Ottoman history at the University of Chicago. From 1994 on he taught at Bilkent University, where he founded the history department. He was a founding member of the Eurasian Academy.
German–Turkish relations have their beginnings in the times of the Ottoman Empire and they have culminated in the development of strong bonds with many facets that include economic, military, cultural and social relations. With Turkey as a candidate for the European Union, of which Germany is the largest member, and the existence of a significant Turkish diaspora in Germany, these relations have become more and more intertwined over the decades. Relations with Turkey significantly deteriorated after the 2016–17 Turkish purges including the arrest of journalists such as Die Welt's Deniz Yücel. Both countries are members of the Council of Europe and NATO. Germany opposes Turkey's European Union membership.
Russia–Turkey relations are the bilateral relations between Russia and Turkey and their antecedent states. Relations between the two are rather cyclical. From the late 16th until the early 20th centuries, relations between the Ottoman and Russian empires were normally adverse and hostile and the two powers were engaged in numerous Russo-Turkish wars, including one of the longest wars in modern history. Russia attempted to extend its influence in the Balkans and gain control of the Bosphorus at the expense of the weakening Ottoman Empire. As a result, the diplomatic history between the two powers was extremely bitter and acrimonious up to World War I. However, in the early 1920s, as a result of the Bolshevik Russian government's assistance to Turkish revolutionaries during the Turkish War of Independence, the governments' relations warmed. Relations again turned sour at the end of WWII as the Soviet government laid territorial claims and demanded other concessions from Turkey. Turkey joined NATO in 1952 and placed itself within the Western alliance against the Warsaw Pact during the Cold War, when relations between the two countries were at their lowest level. Relations began to improve the following year, when the Soviet Union renounced its territorial claims after the death of Stalin.
Relations between Italy and Turkey date back centuries in the form of various predecessor states. Both countries are members of NATO and the Union for the Mediterranean and have active diplomatic relations.
Heath Ward Lowry is the Atatürk Professor of Ottoman and Modern Turkish Studies emeritus at Princeton University and Bahçeşehir University. He is an author of books about the history of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey.
Serbian–Turkish relations are foreign relations between Serbia and Turkey. Serbia has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate-general in Istanbul. Turkey has an embassy in Belgrade. Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC). Turkey is a member of NATO, while Serbia is not. Their relationship is strong, but there has been issues with recognition of Kosovo.
Holy See–Turkey relations are foreign relations between the Holy See and Turkey. Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1868, originally between the Holy See and the Ottoman Empire. The Holy See has a nunciature in Ankara. Turkey has an embassy in Rome.
Saudi Arabia and Turkey relations have long fluctuated between cooperation and alliance to enmity and distrust. Since the 19th century, the two nations have always had a complicated relationship. While Turkey and Saudi Arabia are major economic partners, the two have a tense political relationship, deemed from the historic enmity.
Turkey and the United Arab Emirates share extensive cultural, military and economic ties, but relations have substantially deteriorated since Arab Spring, and later started to recover in the recent years.
The history of Turkey, understood as the history of the area now forming the territory of the Republic of Turkey, includes the history of both Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. These two previously politically distinct regions came under control of the Roman Empire in the second century BC, eventually becoming the core of the Roman Byzantine Empire. For times predating the Ottoman period, a distinction should also be made between the history of the Turkic peoples, and the history of the territories now forming the Republic of Turkey From the time when parts of what is now Turkey were conquered by the Seljuq dynasty, the history of Turkey spans the medieval history of the Seljuk Empire, the medieval to modern history of the Ottoman Empire, and the history of the Republic of Turkey since the 1920s.
The Trans-Anatolian Natural Gas Pipeline is a natural gas pipeline in Turkey. It is the central part of the Southern Gas Corridor, which connects the giant Shah Deniz gas field in Azerbaijan to Europe through the South Caucasus Pipeline and the Trans Adriatic Pipeline. The pipeline has a strategic importance for both Azerbaijan and Turkey. It allows the first Azerbaijani gas exports to Europe, beyond Turkey. It also strengthens the role of Turkey as a regional energy hub.
Bosnia and Herzegovina–Turkey relations are the bilateral relations between Bosnia-Herzegovina and Turkey. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a southeast European country, while Turkey is a transcontinental country with a small European part on the Balkan peninsula around Istanbul. Diplomatic relations between the two countries started on 29 August 1992. Bosnia and Herzegovina has one embassy in Ankara and two consulates in Istanbul and İzmir, while Turkey has one embassy in Sarajevo and one consulate in Mostar. The two countries enjoy very warm diplomatic relations, due to historical and cultural ties dating back to the 15th century. There is a large population of Bosniaks in Turkey and a smaller community of Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Istanbul quarter of Yenibosna is named in honour of the Bosnian community that has settled there since Ottoman times. Reflecting the close ties between the two nations, Bosnians and Turks are free to travel to each other's countries using only their national identification cards, without the need for a passport. Turkey gives full support to Bosnia and Herzegovina's NATO membership.
The Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research is a policy think-tank based in Ankara, Turkey. It was established in 2006 with the objective of producing "up-to-date and accurate knowledge and analyses in the fields of politics, economy and society" and informing "policy makers and the public on changing political, economic, social and cultural conditions." Its general coordinator has been Burhanettin Duran since 2014. The group describes itself as independent, nonprofit and nonpartisan, but is described by Deutsche Welle as being controlled by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.
References
↑ "Hittite people". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
↑ McCarthy, Justin (1996). Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922. Darwin Press Incorporated. p.1. ISBN0-87850-094-4.
↑ Adam, Jones (2010). "Incorporating a global-comparative perspective on the genocide of the last half-millenium has enabled important advances in the understanding of events central to the genocide studies field - such as the process of Ottoman imperial dissolution, reciprocal genocidal killing(during the "Unweaving" in the Balkans)...The human toll of this "Great Unweaving," from Greece's independence war in the early nineteenth century to the final Balkan wars of 1912-1913, was enormous. Hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Muslims were massacred in the secessionist drive..". Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. pp.65–152.
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