List of massacres in Turkey

Last updated

The following is a list of massacres that occurred in Anatolia (numbers may be approximate, as estimates vary greatly):

Contents

Antiquity

NameDateLocationDeathsResponsible PartyVictimsNotes
Fall of Miletus 494 BC Miletus Most Milesian men Persian Empire Greeks [1]
Battle of Aegospotami 405 BC Aegospotami 3,000 Sparta Athenian sailors3,000 Athenian sailors executed
Fall of Sestos 353 BC Sestos All males of Sestos Athens Greeks
Asiatic Vespers 88 BC Asia (Roman province) 80,000–150,000 Mithridates VI of Pontus Romans and Italians [2] [3]

Middle Ages

NameDateLocationDeathsResponsible PartyVictimsNotes
Nika Revolt January 532 Constantinople 30,000Byzantine EmpireByzantinesAbout thirty thousand rioters were reportedly killed. [4]
Sack of Amorium August 838 Amorium 30,000–70,000 [5] Abbasid CaliphateByzantines
Battle of Levounion 29 April 1091 Enez tens of thousands [6] Byzantine Empire & CumansPechenegsThe Pechenegs consisting of 80,000 warriors and their families invaded the Byzantine Empire. Near Enez they were ambushed by a combined Byzantine and Cuman army, fighting soon turned into wholesale slaughter. Warriors and civilians were killed and the Pecheneg people were nearly wiped out. [6]
Siege of Antioch 3 June 1098 Antioch Crusaders Muslim and Christian population
Massacre of the Latins May 1182 Constantinople Uncertain – tens of thousandsByzantine mobRoman CatholicsThe bulk of the Latin community, estimated at over 60,000 at the time, was wiped out or forced to flee; some 4,000 survivors were sold as slaves to the Turks. The massacre further worsened relations and increased enmity between the Western and Eastern Christian churches, and a sequence of hostilities between the two followed.
Siege of Constantinople (1204) 8–13 April 1204 Constantinople many civilians killed [7] CrusadersByzantinesThe city was sacked and looted.
Siege of Antioch (1268) 18 May 1268 Antioch Mamluk Sultanate Christians14,000 Christians slaughtered by the forces of Baibars.[ citation needed ]
Fall of Constantinople 1453 Constantinople 4,000 [8] [9] OttomansByzantines4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages were massacred during these days. Moreover, the dwellings and the churches were plundered. Some 30,000 were enslaved. [9]
Siege of Trebizond 1461 [10] TrabzonOttomansTrebizonds

Ottoman Empire

Before 1914

NameDateLocationDeathsResponsible PartyVictimsNotes
Massacres during the Greek War of Independence 1821–1829 Ottoman Empire UnknownOttoman government Greeks
Massacres of Badr Khan 1840 Hakkari 10,000 [11] Kurdish Emirs of Bhutan, Badr Khan and Nurullah Assyrians Many who were not killed were sold into slavery. 1826 Janissaries massacred by government (link to Auspicious Incident).
Hamidian massacres 1894–1896Eastern Ottoman Empire 100,000–300,000 [12] Ottoman Empire
Hamidiye,
Turkish, Kurdish tribes		 Armenians
Massacres of Diyarbakır (1895) 1895 Diyarbakır Vilayet 25,000 Young Turks and Kurdish irregulars Armenians and Assyrians
Adana massacre April 1909 Adana Vilayet 15,000–30,000 [13] [14] local Turkish nationalist activist, conservative reactionary to Young Turk governmentArmenians
Ethnic cleansing of Turks in Edirne during First Balkan War [15] October 1912-June 1913 Edirne Vilayet 5,000 (excluding Edeköy Massacre) [16] Bulgarian armyTurks
Havsa Massacre1912Havsa in Edirne Vilayet10Bulgarian armyTurksTurkish quarter was almost entirely burnt. [17]
Edeköy MassacreNovember 1912Edeköy (nowadays Kadıdondurma) in Edirne Vilayet Thousands [18] Bulgarian armyTurksMany incidents of torture and robbery. [18]
Destruction of Thracian Bulgarians 1913 Thrace; Bulgarköy, Edirne [19] 60,000 [20] [21] Young Turk government, Ottoman armyBulgarians

World War I (1914–1918)

NameDateLocationDeathsResponsible PartyVictimsNotes
Greek genocide [22] [23] [24] [25] 1917–1922 Ottoman Empire 500,000–900,000 Young Turk government Greeks Reports detail massacres, deportations, individual killings, rapes, burning of entire Greek villages, destruction of Greek Orthodox churches and monasteries, drafts for "Labor Brigades", looting, terrorism and other atrocities. [26] [27]
Seyfo [28] 1914–1918Ottoman Empire270,000Young Turk government and Kurdish tribes Assyrians Denied by the Turkish government.
Armenian genocide 1895–1918Ottoman Empire850,000–1,800,000Young Turk government and Kurdish tribes Armenians The Armenians of the eastern regions of the empire were massacred. The Turkish government currently denies the genocide. [29] [30] [31] It is the second most publicised case of genocide after the Holocaust. [32]
Massacres in Eastern Anatolia 1915-1916 Eastern Anatolia 128,000+ [33] Russian army and possibly Armenian irregulars Muslim population According to J. Rummel at least 128,000 Muslims were killed (death toll includes death by famine and diseases) by Russian troops and possibly Armenian irregulars during the period between 1915 and 1916. [33]
Massacres in the Çoruh River valley1916 [34] Çoruh River valley45,000 [34] Cossack regiments Muslim population During WWI, Russian "General Liakhov, for instance 'accused the Muslims of treachery, and sent his Cossacks from Batum with orders to kill every native at sight, and burn every village and every mosque. And very efficiently had they performed their task, for as we passed up the Chorokh valley to Artvin not a single habitable dwelling or a single living creature did we see.'" [34]

Post-World War I (1919–1923)

NameDateLocationDeathsResponsible PartyVictimsNotes
Massacre in Marash 1920 Marash, Aleppo Vilayet 5,000–12,000TurksArmenians [35] [36] [37]
Massacre in Birecik [38] February 11–24, 1920 Birecik, Aleppo Vilayet 280FrenchTurks70 wounded, [39] many women were raped [40]
Kahyaoğlu Farm Massacre  [ tr ]June 11, 1920 Yeşiloba, Adana Vilayet 64+ to ~200ArmeniansTurksReport which was given to Mustafa Kemal Pasha included 43 men, 21 women and tens of children. Other estimates are up to 200. [41]

Republic of Turkey (1923–present)

NameDateLocationDeathsResponsible PartyVictimsNotes
Diyarbakir massacre1925 Diyarbakir Province, Elazığ Province 15,200 (206 villages destroyed)Turkish security forcesKurdsPart of Deportations of Kurds between 1916 and 1934. [42]
Zilan massacre July 1930 Van Province 4,500–15,000Turkish security forcesKurds5,000 women, children, and elderly people were reportedly killed [43]
1934 Thrace pogroms 21 June-4 July 1934 Thrace 1Local peopleJewsOver 15,000 Jews had to flee from region [44]
Dersim rebellion Summer 1937-Spring 1938 Tunceli Province 13,806–70,000 [45] Turkish security forces Alevi Kurds/ZazasThe killings have been condemned by some as an ethnocide or genocide [46] [47]
Zini Rift Massacre 6 August 1938 Erzincan Province 95Turkish security forcesKurds [48] [49] [50] [51]
Muğlalı incident July 1943 Van Province 32Turkish security forcesKurds33 Kurdish villagers were extrajudicially executed by General Mustafa Muğlalı for allegedly smuggling livestock, one of them escaped. [52] [53] [54]
Karahan village massacreOctober 1944 Van Province 6Turkish security forcesKurds6 Kurdish villagers were extrajudicially executed by General Mustafa Muğlalı. This was the second massacre of Muğlalı, with the possibility of more uncovered massacres having been committed. [55]
Istanbul pogrom 6–7 September 1955 Istanbul 13–30 [56] Turkish government [57] primarily Greeks, as well as Armenians, JewsThe killings are identified as genocidal by Alfred-Maurice de Zayas. [58] Many of the non-Muslim minorities, mostly Greek Christians, forced to leave Turkey. Several churches are demolished by explosives.
Taksim Square massacre May 1, 1977 Taksim Square in Istanbul 34 [59] -42 [60] Some unidentified armed people (claimed that they are related to CIA [61] )Leftist demonstrators, civilians
Beyazıt massacre March 16, 1978 Istanbul 7 Grey Wolves, Turkish deep state (alleged) Leftist university studentsCemil Sönmez, Baki Ekiz, Hatice Özen, Abdullah Şimşek, Murat Kurt, Hamdi Akıl and Turan Ören were killed and 41 others were injured by a bomb that was followed by gunfire March 16, 1978.
Ümraniye massacre March 17, 1978 Ümraniye in Istanbul 5 Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist Grey Wolves affiliated workers Grey Wolves claim that the victims were badly tortured. [62] Reaction to the aforementioned Beyazıt massacre.
Malatya massacre April 17, 1978 Malatya Province 8 Grey Wolves, Salafists Alevi Turks Grey Wolves and salafists attacked Alevi regions of city after assassination of Hamit Fendoğlu  [ tr ] leaving 8 dead, including 3 children and 100 wounded. 1000 shops were looted and destroyed. [63]
Balgat massacre August 10, 1978 Çankaya, Ankara 5 Grey Wolves Civilians (claimed that they were leftist)
Bahçelievler massacre October 9, 1978 Bahçelievler, Ankara 7 [64] Grey Wolves Workers' Party of Turkey member students
Maraş massacre December 19–26, 1978 Kahramanmaraş Province 109 [65] Grey Wolves [65] Alevi Kurds
Piyangotepe massacre May 16, 1979 Keçiören in Ankara 7 Grey Wolves Civilians[ citation needed ]
Adana high school massacreSeptember 19, 1979Adana Construction Vocational High School6 Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist Grey Wolves affiliated teachersMüslüm Teke, Yılmaz Kızılay, Davut Korkmaz, Ahmet Güleç, Özcan Doruk and Mustafa Karaca were killed by 2 Leftist men. Reaction to the aforementioned Maraş massacre where the Grey Wolves killed more than a hundred civilians. [62] [66] [67]
Çorum massacre May–July, 1980 Çorum Province 57 [68] Grey Wolves Alevi Turks
Ortabağ massacre January 23, 1987 Uludere in Şırnak Province 8 PKK Civilians [69] [70]
Pınarcık massacre June 20, 1987Pınarcık in Mardin Province 30 JİTEM/PKK (disputed)Civilians
Çevrimli massacre  [ tr ]June 11, 1990 Güçlükonak in Şırnak Province 27 PKK CiviliansIn the massacre, 27 people were killed, 12 were children and 7 were women. 4 village guards died in clashes with PKK members, 1 PKK member was killed. [71] [72] [73]
Çetinkaya Store massacre  [ tr ]December 25, 1991 Bakırköy in Istanbul 11 PKK CiviliansThe PKK attacks a store in the Bakırköy district with Molotov cocktails, resulting in 11 deaths, including 7 women and 1 child. [72] [74]
Cevizdalı massacreOctober 21, 1992 Cevizdalı in Bitlis Province 30 PKK CiviliansCevizdali village of Bitlis was raided during the nighttime, PKK militias killed 30 people, including 8 children, and wounded 20 others. Militias then burned whole the village by the news they received that soldiers are on the way to the village. [75]
Sivas massacre [76]

(aka Madımak massacre)

July 2, 1993 Sivas 35 (+2 perpetrators) Salafists, Grey Wolves Alevi and leftist intellectuals
Başbağlar massacre July 5, 1993Başbağlar, near Erzincan 33 JİTEM/PKK (disputed) [77] Civilians
Digor massacre  [ tr ]August 14, 1993 Digor, Kars 17Turkish security forcesKurdish CiviliansOpened fire on Kurdish villagers by the Special Operation Department. 17 villagers including 7 children were killed and 63 were injured. [78]
Vartinis massacre October 3, 1993Vartinis, Muş province 9 Turkish Armed Forces Civilians
Lice massacre October 20–23, 1993 Lice in Diyarbakır Province 30+ Turkish Armed Forces Kurdish CiviliansTurkish security forces attacked the town of Lice, destroying 401 houses, 242 shops and massacring more than thirty civilians, and leaving 100 wounded. [79]
Yavi Massacre [80] October 25, 1993Yavi, Çat, Erzurum Province 38 PKK Civilians
Ormancık massacreJanuary 21, 1994 Ormancık, Savur, Mardin Province 19 PKK Village guards and affiliated civiliansThe massacre may have been a chemical attack. [81] [82]
Kuşkonar and Koçağılı massacre March 23, 1994Kuşkonar and Koçağılı villages, Şırnak 38 [83] Turkish Air Force Kurdish CiviliansThe government bombed and killed residents of villages who refused to join the government forces. The government spread pictures of dead children in newspapers and blamed the PKK. Turkey was condemned for carrying out the massacre of Kurdish civilians in the ECHR.
Gazi Quarter massacre March 15, 1995 Istanbul and Ankara 23 [84] JİTEM, Turkish deep state (alleged) Alevis More than 400 injured [84]
Güçlükonak massacre  [ tr ]February 15, 1996 Güçlükonak in Şırnak province 11 JİTEM Civilians [85] [86] [87] [88]
Blue Market massacre March 13, 1999 Istanbul 13 PKK Civilians [89]
Operation Back to Life December 19, 2000 Turkey 32Turkish security forcesLeftist prisonersDeaths include 30 prisoners and 2 soldiers [90]
Diyarbakır events of March 2006  [ tr ]March 28–31, 2006 Diyarbakır 14Turkish security forcesProtesters14 Kurdish civilians including 6 children, 4 of them under the age of 10 were killed by the security forces in protests [91]
Zirve Publishing House massacre April 18, 2007 Malatya 3IslamistsGerman Christians [92]
Mardin engagement ceremony massacre May 4, 2009Bilge, Mardin 44 [93] Village Guards Civilians Reuters said it was "one of the worst attacks involving civilians in Turkey's modern history", declaring that the scale of the attack had shocked the nation. [94]
Roboski airstrike December 28, 2011 Uludere in Şırnak Province 34 [83] Turkish Air Force Kurdish CiviliansWarplanes killed who had been involved in smuggling gasoline and cigarettes in the area, villagers during an operation meant to target Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) rebels. The government gave no information about the facts. [95] [96] [97]
Suruç bombing July 20, 2015 Suruç in Şanlıurfa Province 34 ISIL Socialist Party of the Oppressed member university students
2015 Ankara bombings October 10, 2015 Ankara 109 ISIL Protesters, civilians
Cizre basement massacre February 7, 2016 Cizre, Şırnak +178 Turkish Armed Forces Kurdish Civilians178 civilians, dozens of them children, some of them as young as 9 were burnt alive in three basements. [98] [99] Turkish government reacted to the massacre by calling it "baseless terror propaganda", and covering it up by flattening the ruins and filling the basements up with rubble. [100]
February 2016 Ankara bombing February 17, 2016 Ankara 30 TAK Civilian employees of Turkish Armed Forces and soldiers
March 2016 Ankara bombing March 13, 2016 Ankara 38 TAK Civilians
2016 Atatürk Airport attack June 28, 2016 Atatürk Airport, Istanbul 45 ISIL Civilians
2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt July 15–16, 2016 Turkey (Mainly Istanbul, Ankara, Malatya, Kars and Marmaris)270–350 [101] Peace at Home Council Civilians and soldiersTurkey witnessed the bloodiest coup attempt in its political history on July 15, 2016, when a section of the Turkish military launched a coordinated operation in several major cities to topple the government [102]
2017 Istanbul nightclub attack January 1, 2017 Istanbul 39 ISIS CiviliansA gunman opened fire in the Reina Nightclub during New Year celebrations
2021 Konya massacre July 30, 2021 Meram district, Konya Province 7Mehmet AltunKurds
2023 Adana attack July 22, 2023 Seyhan district, Adana Province 1A.S Free Cause Party

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkish Armed Forces</span> Combined military forces of Turkey

The Turkish Armed Forces are the military forces of the Republic of Turkey. The Turkish Armed Forces consist of the Land Forces, the Naval Forces and the Air Forces. The Chief of the General Staff is the Commander of the Armed Forces. In wartime, the Chief of the General Staff acts as the Commander-in-Chief on behalf of the President, who represents the Supreme Military Command of the TAF on behalf of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Coordinating the military relations of the TAF with other NATO member states and friendly states is the responsibility of the General Staff.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tunceli</span> Municipality in Tunceli Province, Turkey

Tunceli is a municipality (belde) in Tunceli District and capital of Tunceli Province, Turkey. The city has a Zaza majority and was a site of the Dersim rebellion. It had a population of 35,161 in 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Halil Kut</span> Ottoman general and genocide perpetrator

Halil Kut was an Ottoman military commander and politician. He served in the Ottoman Army during World War I, notably taking part in the military campaigns against Russia in the Caucasus and the British in Mesopotamia.

Armenians in Turkey, one of the indigenous peoples of Turkey, have an estimated population of 50,000 to 70,000, down from a population of over 2 million Armenians between the years 1914 and 1921. Today, the overwhelming majority of Turkish Armenians are concentrated in Istanbul. They support their own newspapers, churches and schools, and the majority belong to the Armenian Apostolic faith and a minority of Armenians in Turkey belong to the Armenian Catholic Church or to the Armenian Evangelical Church. They are not considered part of the Armenian Diaspora, since they have been living in their historical homeland for more than four thousand years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nazımiye</span> Municipality in Tunceli Province, Turkey

Nazımiye is a municipality (belde) and seat of the Nazımiye District of Tunceli Province in Turkey. It had a population of 1,262 in 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Armenian–Kurdish relations</span> Diplomatic relations between Armenian and Kurdish peoples

Armenian–Kurdish relations covers the historical relations between the Kurds and the Armenians.

Kurds have had a long history of discrimination perpetrated against them by the Turkish government. Massacres have periodically occurred against the Kurds since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. Among the most significant is the massacre that happened during the Dersim rebellion, when 13,160 civilians were killed by the Turkish Army and 11,818 people were sent into exile. According to McDowall, 40,000 people were killed. The Zilan massacre of 1930 was a massacre of Kurdish residents of Turkey during the Ararat rebellion, in which 5,000 to 47,000 were killed.

Kurdish nationalist uprisings have periodically occurred in Turkey, beginning with the Turkish War of Independence and the consequent transition from the Ottoman Empire to the modern Turkish state and continuing to the present day with the current PKK–Turkey conflict.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dersim rebellion</span> Kurdish uprising against the Turkish government in Dersim, eastern Turkey

The Dersim rebellion was a Kurdish uprising against the central government in the Dersim region of eastern Turkey, which includes parts of Tunceli Province, Elazığ Province, and Bingöl Province. The rebellion was led by Seyid Riza, a chieftain of the Abasan tribe. In 1937 and 1938, the Turkish Armed Forces carried out three Dersim operations against the rebellion, including the Dersim massacre, of civilians: thousands of Kurds were killed and many others were internally displaced.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taner Akçam</span> Turkish-German historian and sociologist (born 1953)

Altuğ Taner Akçam is a Turkish-German historian and sociologist. During the 1990s, he was the first Turkish scholar to acknowledge the Armenian genocide, and has written several books on the genocide, such as A Shameful Act (1999), From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide (2004), The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity (2012), and Killing Orders (2018). He is recognized as a "leading international authority" on the subject. Akçam's frequent participation in public debates on the legacy of the genocide have been compared to Theodor Adorno's role in postwar Germany.

Pazukî is a Kurdish tribe whose members live in different regions in Kurdistan as well as in and around Tehran, Iran. The tribe is mentioned in the 16th century Kurdish historical book Sharafnama by Sharaf Khan Bidlisi. There are some variants of the name Pazuki and they are known under the various names, like Bazikî, Bozukan, Bazukan etc. Pazukî was originally a tribal confederation like Rojiki Kurds. Some branches of them speak Kurmanji and the others speak Zazakî. But Henry Field mentioned their Iranian branch also as a Turcophonic community in 1939.

Hidden Armenians or crypto-Armenians is an umbrella term to describe Turkish citizens hiding their full or partial Armenian ancestry from the larger Turkish society. They are mostly descendants of Ottoman Armenians who, at least outwardly, were Islamized "under the threat of physical extermination" during the Armenian genocide.

The Pinarcik massacre was the killing of 24 Kurdish women and children and eight village guards on 20 June 1987, in the village of Pınarcık, in the Mardin Province of Turkey, by ARGK units of the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK). The dead consisted of 16 children, eight village guards, and eight women. Aliza Marcus, a specialist on the conflict, describes it as "the PKK's most brutal attack on villagers since the state-sponsored militia had been formed".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xenophobia and discrimination in Turkey</span> Racism and ethnic discrimination in Turkey

In Turkey, xenophobia and discrimination are present in its society and throughout its history, including ethnic discrimination, religious discrimination and institutional racism against non-Muslim and non-Sunni minorities. This appears mainly in the form of negative attitudes and actions by some people towards people who are not considered ethnically Turkish, notably Kurds, Armenians, Arabs, Assyrians, Greeks, Jews, and peripatetic groups like Romani people, Domari, Abdals and Lom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Place name changes in Turkey</span> Overview of geographical name changes in the Republic of Turkey

Place name changes in Turkey have been undertaken, periodically, in bulk from 1913 to the present by successive Turkish governments. Thousands of names within the Turkish Republic or its predecessor the Ottoman Empire have been changed from their popular or historic alternatives in favour of recognizably Turkish names, as part of Turkification policies. The governments have argued that such names are foreign or divisive, while critics of the changes have described them as chauvinistic. Names changed were usually of Armenian, Greek, Georgian, Laz, Bulgarian, Kurdish (Zazaki), Persian, Syriac, or Arabic origin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tunceli Province</span> Province of Turkey

Tunceli Province, formerly Dersim Province, is a province in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Its central city is Tunceli. The province is considered part of Turkish Kurdistan and has a Kurdish majority. Moreover, it is the only province in Turkey with an Alevi majority. Its population is 84,366 (2022). The province has eight municipalities, 366 villages and 1,087 hamlets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kurdish rebellions during World War I</span> Rebellions against the Ottoman Empire

During World War I, several Kurdish rebellions took place within the Ottoman Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secession in Turkey</span>

Secession in Turkey is a phenomenon caused by the desire of a number of minorities living in Turkey to secede and form independent national states.

The persecution of Kurds is the ethnic and political persecution which is inflicted upon Kurds by the governments of Iran, Syria, Turkey, and Iraq.

The Zini Rift Massacre is the event that 95 Kurdish civilians were shot dead on 6 August 1938 in the Kılıçkaya village of Erzincan Province, Turkey. After the Dersim rebellion, some of the people of the region were exiled to Balıkesir and Keşan.

References

  1. ↑ Herodotus 6.19.3;
  2. ↑ Valerius Maximus 9.2.3; Memnon 22.9.
  3. ↑ Plutarch, 24.4.
  4. ↑ This is the number given by Procopius, Wars (Internet Medieval Sourcebook.)
  5. ↑ Treadgold, Warren T. (1988). The Byzantine Revival, 780–842. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN   0-8047-1462-2.
  6. 1 2 Grumeza, Ion (2010). The Roots of Balkanization: Eastern Europe C.E. 500–1500. University Press of America. p. 35. ISBN   9780761851356.
  7. ↑ Claster, Jill N. (2009). Sacred Violence: The European Crusades to the Middle East, 1095–1396. University of Toronto Press. p. 35. ISBN   9781442600584.
  8. ↑ Philippides, Marios (2007). Mehmed II the Conqueror and the fall of the Franco-Byzantine Levant to the Ottoman Turks : some western views and testimonies. Tempe, Ariz.: ACMRS/Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. p. 197. ISBN   978-0866983464.
  9. 1 2 Fuller, J.F.C. (1987). A military history of the Western World ([Da Capo Press pbk. ed.]. ed.). New York, N.Y.: Da Capo Press. p. 522. ISBN   0306803046.
  10. ↑ William Miller, Trebizond: The last Greek Empire of the Byzantine Era: 1204–1461, 1926 (Chicago: Argonaut, 1969), p. 106
  11. ↑ Gaunt, D; Beṯ-Şawoce, J (2006), Massacres, resistance, protectors: Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I, Gorgias Press LLC, p. 32, ISBN   978-1-59333-301-0 [ permanent dead link ].
  12. ↑ Akçam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility . New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006, p. 42. ISBN   0-8050-7932-7.
  13. ↑ Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act . 2006, page 69–70: "fifteen to twenty thousand Armenians were killed"
  14. ↑ Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views By Samuel. Totten, William S. Parsons, Israel W. Charny
  15. ↑ "Report of the International Commission to inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. [Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of Intercourse and Education, Publication No. 4.] (Washington, D. C.: Published by the Endowment. 1914. Pp. 413.)". The American Historical Review. April 1915. doi:10.1086/ahr/20.3.638. ISSN   1937-5239.
  16. ↑ Hamza, Jusuf, 1945- (1995). Mladoturskata revolucija vo Osmanskata imperija. Skopje: Logos-a. ISBN   9989-601-21-6. OCLC   40838454.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ Report of the International Commission to Inquire Into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 1914.
  18. 1 2 "Rum çetelerinin karanlıkta kalan soykırımı: Edeköy Katliamı". Sabah (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-03-10.
  19. ↑ "Carnegie Endowment for International peace, Report to inquire into the causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. CHAPTER III. Bulgarians, Turks and Servians, 2. Thrace, p.130-131".
  20. ↑ Carnegie (1914). Report of the international commission to inquire into the causes and conduct of the Balkan Wars. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
  21. ↑ Vukov, Nikolai (2015), "Resettlement Waves, Historical Memory and Identity Construction: The Case of Thracian Refugees in Bulgaria", Migration in the Southern Balkans, IMISCOE Research Series, p. 68, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-13719-3_4 , ISBN   978-3-319-13718-6
  22. ↑ IAGS Resolution on Genocides committed by the Ottoman Empire retrieved via the Internet Archive (PDF), International Association of Genocide Scholars, archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-28
  23. ↑ "Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament — full text containing the IAGS resolution and the Swedish Parliament resolution from". news.am. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  24. ↑ Gaunt, David. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I . Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2006.
  25. ↑ Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820. S2CID   71515470.
  26. ↑ The New York Times Advanced search engine for article and headline archives (subscription necessary for viewing article content).
  27. ↑ Alexander Westwood and Darren O'Brien, Selected bylines and letters from The New York Times Archived 2007-06-07 at the Wayback Machine , The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 2006
  28. ↑ Travis, Hannibal (2006). ""Native Christians Massacred": The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians during World War I". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 1 (3): 327–371. doi:10.3138/YV54-4142-P5RN-X055.
  29. ↑ "Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution". Armenian genocide. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
  30. ↑ Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West . New York: Penguin Press. p.  177. ISBN   1-59420-100-5.
  31. ↑ "A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars" (PDF). Genocide Watch. 13 June 2005.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  32. ↑ Rummel, RJ (1 April 1998), "The Holocaust in Comparative and Historical Perspective", The Journal of Social Issues, 3 (2)
  33. 1 2 J. Rummel, Rudolph (1998). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 82, 83. ISBN   9783825840105.
  34. 1 2 3 Gerwarth, Robert; Horne, John (2012). War in Peace: Paramilitary Violence in Europe After the Great War. Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN   9780199654918.
  35. ↑ Levene, Mark (2013). Devastation. Oxford University Press. p. 227. ISBN   9780191505546.
  36. ↑ Kerr, Stanley Elphinstone (1973). The Lions of Marash. SUNY Press. pp. 195–196. ISBN   9781438408828.
  37. ↑ Un épisode de la tragédie arménienne: le massacre de Marache
  38. ↑ "Birecik'in Düşman İşgalinden Kurtuluşunun 98. Yıl Dönümü Tören İle Kutlandı". www.birecik.gov.tr. Retrieved 2020-07-20.
  39. ↑ "ADANA VE ÇEVRESİNDE ERMENİ MEZALİMİ". Yeni Çağ Gazetesi. 19 April 2012. Retrieved 2020-07-20.
  40. ↑ Osmanli Belgelerınde Ermenı-Fransiz İlışkılerı (1920-1922) III [Armenian-French Relations in Ottoman Documents](PDF) (in Turkish), Ankara: State Archives Department, 2003
  41. ↑ YURTSEVER, Cezmi (2015). Katliamın Tanığı Yeşiloba. pp. 4–22.
  42. ↑ Üngör, Ugur Ümit (2011), The making of modern Turkey : nation and state in Eastern Anatolia, 1913-1950, Oxford University Press, p. 129, ISBN   9780199603602
  43. ↑ Ahmet Kahraman, ibid, pp. 207–208. (in Turkish)
  44. ↑ Guttstadt, Corry (2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN   9780521769914. OCLC   870196866.
  45. ↑ "Dersim massacre monument to open next month". Today's Zaman. 24 October 2012. Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
  46. ↑ The Suppression of the Dersim Rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) Archived 2016-01-08 at the Wayback Machine Excerpts from: Martin van Bruinessen, "Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988)", in: George J. Andreopoulos (ed), Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994, pp. 141–170.
  47. ↑ İsmail Besikçi, Tunceli Kanunu (1935) ve Dersim Jenosidi, Belge Yayınları, 1990.
  48. ↑ "1938 Dersim Olayları: 'Zini' gün yüzüne çıkıyor! | Gündem Haberleri". 2015-07-15. Archived from the original on 2015-07-15. Retrieved 2020-03-08.
  49. ↑ "Zini Gediği katliamına soruşturma". www.demokrathaber.org (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-03-08.
  50. ↑ "'Zini Gediği Katliamı' Dosyası". Haberler.com (in Turkish). 5 October 2011. Retrieved 2020-03-08.
  51. ↑ Mynet (28 September 2011). "Zini Gediği Katliamı'na soruşturma". Mynet YurtHaber (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-03-08.
  52. ↑ oran, süleyman arif (2017-12-18). "TEKKEDE ZAMAN Üsküdar'da Rifâî Sandıkçı Dergâhı ve Vukuât-ı Tekâya, Muharrem Varol, İstanbul, Dergah Yay., 2017, 284 s." Sakarya Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi (SAUIFD). doi: 10.17335/sakaifd.349943 . ISSN   2146-9806.
  53. ↑ Ritter, H. (1954-01-01). "İstanbulBelediye KütüphanesiAlfabetikKatalogu. I. Osman Ergin Kitaplan. Arapça ve Farsça basma eserler. Tertipliyen M. ORHAN DURUSOY, Istanbul Belediye Kütüphanesi Müdürü. — İstanbul 1953, Millî Egitim basimevi. 16, 298 s.". Oriens. 7 (1): 108. doi:10.1163/1877837254x00440. ISSN   0078-6527.
  54. ↑ Aras, Ramazan (2013-11-12). The Formation of Kurdishness in Turkey: Political Violence, Fear and Pain. Routledge. p. 65. ISBN   978-1-134-64871-9.
  55. ↑ "Muğlalı'nın gizli kalan ikinci 33 Kurşun Katliamı".
  56. ↑ Λιμπιτσιούνη, Ανθή Γ. "Το πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου" (PDF). University of Thessaloniki. p. 29.
  57. ↑ Mills, Amy (2010). Streets of memory : landscape, tolerance, and national identity in Istanbul. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 119. ISBN   9780820335735. ...the state-led local violence that shattered neighborhoods across Istanbul in 1955 made ethnic-religious difference visible and divisive as Greeks and other minorities in the city were targeted and their property violated.
  58. ↑ Alfred de Zayas publication about the Istanbul Pogrom "The Istanbul Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law - Genocide Studies and Prevention - Volume 2, Number 2 / August 2007 - University of Toronto Press". Archived from the original on 2013-01-28. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
  59. ↑ Özcan, Emine (2006-04-28). "1977 1 Mayıs Katliamı Aydınlatılsın". bianet (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2011-08-07.
  60. ↑ Mavioglu, Ertugrul; Sanyer, Ruhi (2007-05-02). "30 yıl sonra kanlı 1 Mayıs (4)". Radikal (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2007-09-30.
  61. ↑ "Kanlı 1 Mayıs Taksim'de neler oldu? 1 Mayıs olayları neydi?". karar.com. January 5, 2019.
  62. 1 2 "Ümraniye'de Ülkücü diye 5 işçiyi öldürmüşlerdi 17 Mart 1978". Yeni Çağ Gazetesi (in Turkish). 2016-03-17. Retrieved 2020-07-23.
  63. ↑ Kaleli, Lütfe (2017). Geçmişten Günümüze Dinsel Katliamlar: Geçmişten Günümüze Dinsel Katliamlar (in Turkish). Berfin Basın Yayın ve Tic. Ltd. Şti. ISBN   978-605-4399-55-0.
  64. ↑ Yalçın, Soner; Yurdakul, Doğan (1997). "The Bahcelievler Massacre". Reis: Gladio'nun Türk Tetikçisi. Su Yayinlari.
  65. 1 2 David McDowall (2004). A Modern History of the Kurds: Third Edition. I.B.Tauris. p. 415. ISBN   978-1-85043-416-0.
  66. ↑ "Dualar 6 Şehit öğretmen için". adanapost (in Turkish). 20 September 2017. Retrieved 2020-07-23.
  67. ↑ "Ülkücüleri öldüren katiller şimdi şiir yazıyor - Timeturk: Haber, Timeturk Haber, HABER, Günün haberleri, yorum, spor, ekonomi, politika, sanat, sinema". www.timeturk.com. Retrieved 2020-07-23.
  68. ↑ Cüneyt Arcayürek: Darbeler ve Gizli Servisler, (Sayfa.221)
  69. ↑ Özçağlayan, Mehmet; Yavuz Çakıcı, Filiz (2019-08-01). "Gramsci'nin Hegemonya Kuramı Bağlamında Nükleer Karşıtı Hareketin Milliyet Gazetesindeki Temsiliyeti (11 Ocak 1999-25 Temmuz 2000)". İnsan ve İnsan Dergisi: 633–671. doi: 10.29224/insanveinsan.453020 . ISSN   2148-7537.
  70. ↑ A.A (26 January 2009). "Terör kurbanları 22 yıl sonra anıldı". www.hurriyet.com.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-03-08.
  71. ↑ BAYKENT, Tuğrul (1996). "Pierre Loti (14 Ocak 1850-10 Haziran 1923)". OTAM: Ankara Üniversitesi Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi. doi: 10.1501/otam_0000000166 . ISSN   1019-469X.
  72. 1 2 "DÜNYADA ÖNEMLİ OLAYLAR KRONOLOJİSİ: PKK (Partiya Karkeren Kürdistan-Kürdistan İşçi Partisi): TERÖR ÖRGÜTÜ KRONOLOJİSİ (1976 – 2006)" [CHRONOLOGY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE WORLD: PKK (Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan-Kurdistan Workers' Party): TERRORIST ORGANIZATION CHRONOLOGY (1976 – 2006)](PDF) (in Turkish). 2016-01-20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-20. Retrieved 2020-03-08.
  73. ↑ "ḤAZĪRĀN". Encyclopédie de l’Islam. doi:10.1163/_eifo_dum_1634.
  74. ↑ Agency, Anadolu (2016-05-20). "PKK terrorists' long history of attacking civilians: A grim timeline". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 2020-07-21.
  75. ↑ The Kurds of Turkey: Killings, Disappearances and Torture
  76. ↑ "Turkey commemorates 15th anniversary of Sivas massacre". Hürriyet . 2008-07-02. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
  77. ↑ "HDK: Başbağlar Katliamı hakkında adalet istiyoruz". Duvar.
  78. ↑ "Refworld | Chronology for Kurds in Turkey".
  79. ↑ Ron, James; Watch (Organization), Human Rights (1995). Weapons Transfers and Violations of the Laws of War in Turkey. Human Rights Watch. ISBN   9781564321619.
  80. ↑ "Yavi Şehitlerine vefa". Erzurum gazetesi (in Turkish). 2010-06-23. Retrieved 2015-02-12.
  81. ↑ "Worst terrorist strikes--worldwide". www.johnstonsarchive.net. Retrieved 2022-09-17.
  82. ↑ "Human Rights Watch: Ocalan Trial Monitor". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 2022-09-17.
  83. 1 2 "Concerns raised about obscuring evidence in Uludere killings". Todayszaman.com. 2012-01-11. Archived from the original on 2013-12-21. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  84. 1 2 "Ergenekon zanlısı, Gazi mahallesi provokatörü çıktı -". Star Gazete (in Turkish). 2008-07-04. Retrieved 2012-02-18.
  85. ↑ ""Birds or earthworms":the Güçlükonak Massacre, its alleged cover-up, and the prosecution of independent investigators" (PDF). Amnesty. 31 May 1998. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
  86. ↑ Gün, Zeki (17 January 1996). "PKK'dan bir vahset daha". Zaman . Retrieved 11 February 2009.
  87. ↑ "Güçlükonak'ta ne oldu?". Düşünce Suçuna Karşı Girişim. Archived from the original (Video) on 27 August 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2009. ( "Videonun çözümü".[ permanent dead link ])
  88. ↑ "Suç Duyurusu". Barış İçin Bir Araya Çalışma Grubu. 16 April 1996. Archived from the original on 27 August 2014. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
  89. ↑ "HURRIYET INTERNET". 2012-07-12. Archived from the original on 2012-07-12. Retrieved 2020-03-06.
  90. ↑ "Otopsideki gerçek". Archived from the original on 2009-05-04.
  91. ↑ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Turkey: Status of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and Turkish Hezbollah; situation and treatment of members, supporters and sympathizers of these parties (2006–2007)". Refworld. Retrieved 2019-01-02.
  92. ↑ Großbongardt, Annette (2007-04-23). "After the Missionary Massacre: Christian Converts Live In Fear in Intolerant Turkey". Spiegel Online. Retrieved 2018-07-24.
  93. ↑ "Reuters article" Reuters. Retrieved 4 May 2009
  94. ↑ "Blood feuds, gun violence plague Turkey's southeast". Reuters. 2009-05-05. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
  95. ↑ "Uludere'de Sağ Kurtulan Encü Anlattı". Aktif Haber (in Turkish). 2012-01-02. Archived from the original on 2012-01-08. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
  96. ↑ "Questions grow over Uludere intel failure". Hürriyet Daily News . Archived from the original on 2013-12-30. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
  97. ↑ "35 Tabuta Kilometrelerce Gözyaşı". Haberler (in Turkish). 2011-12-30. Archived from the original on 2012-01-08. Retrieved 2012-01-07.
  98. ↑ "Turkish forces accused of 'mass murder' in southeast". Deutsche Welle. 12 February 2016.
  99. ↑ "In den Kellern von Cizre". Telepolis. 11 February 2016.
  100. ↑ "Inside Cizre: Where Turkish forces stand accused of Kurdish killings". BBC News. 23 May 2016.
  101. ↑ "Attempted coup in Turkey leaves 265 people dead". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2021-10-26.
  102. ↑ "Turkey's failed coup attempt: All you need to know". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2021-10-26.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.