2G

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2G, or second-generation cellular network technology, marks the transition from analog to digital communication in mobile networks. Defined by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) under the GSM standard, which became the first globally adopted framework for mobile communications, 2G was first commercially launched in 1991 by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in Finland. [1] Following its introduction, the earlier mobile wireless network systems were retroactively designated as 1G. 2G networks were primarily designed to support voice calls and Short Message Service (SMS), with later advancements such as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) enabling basic data services, including email and limited internet access. Unlike 1G networks, which used analog radio signals, 2G networks utilized digital radio signals for communication between mobile devices and base stations. This transition to digital technology enabled the implementation of encryption for voice calls and data transmission, significantly improving the security of mobile communications while also increasing capacity and efficiency compared to earlier analog systems.

Contents

Later 2G releases, often referred to as 2.5G and 2.75G, include General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). GPRS allows 2G networks to achieve a theoretical maximum transfer speed of 40 kbit/s (5 kB/s). EDGE increases this capacity, providing a theoretical maximum transfer speed of 384 kbit/s (48 kB/s).

2G was succeeded by 3G technology, which provided higher data transfer rates and expanded mobile internet capabilities.

Technical overview

The most common 2G technology was the time-division multiple access (TDMA)-based GSM standard, used in most of the world outside Japan.[ citation needed ] In North America, Digital AMPS (IS-54 and IS-136) and cdmaOne (IS-95) were dominant, but GSM was also used. [2] [ citation needed ] In Japan the ubiquitous system was Personal Digital Cellular (PDC), though another, Personal Handy-phone System (PHS), also existed.[ citation needed ]

Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their 1G predecessors were:

Evolution

Cellular network standards and generation timeline. (Large titles on the colored area refer to the lines to their right. Cellular network standards and generation timeline.svg
Cellular network standards and generation timeline. (Large titles on the colored area refer to the lines to their right.

2.5G (GPRS)

2.5G ("second-and-a-half generation") refers to 2G systems that incorporate a packet-switched domain alongside the existing circuit-switched domain, most commonly implemented through General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). [3] GPRS enables packet-based data transmission by dynamically allocating multiple timeslots to users, improving network efficiency. However, this does not inherently provide faster speeds, as similar techniques, such as timeslot bundling, are also employed in circuit-switched data services like High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD). Within GPRS-enabled 2G systems, the theoretical maximum transfer rate is 40 kbit/s (5 kB/s). [4]

2.75G (EDGE)

2.75G refers to the evolution of GPRS networks into EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution) networks, achieved through the introduction of 8PSK (8 Phase Shift Keying) encoding. While the symbol rate remained constant at 270.833 samples per second, the use of 8PSK allowed each symbol to carry three bits instead of one, significantly increasing data transmission efficiency. Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), also known as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS) or IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC), is a backward-compatible digital mobile phone technology built as an extension to standard GSM. First deployed in 2003 by AT&T in the United States, EDGE offers a theoretical maximum transfer speed of 384 kbit/s (48 kB/s). [4]

2.875G (EDGE Evolution)

Evolved EDGE (also known as EDGE Evolution or 2.875G) is an enhancement of the EDGE mobile technology that was introduced as a late-stage upgrade to 2G networks. While EDGE was first deployed in the early 2000s as part of GSM networks, Evolved EDGE was launched much later, coinciding with the widespread adoption of 3G technologies such as HSPA and just before the emergence of 4G networks. This timing limited its practical application.

Evolved EDGE increased data throughput and reduced latencies (down to 80 ms) by utilizing improved modulation techniques, dual carrier support, dual antennas, and turbo codes. It achieved peak data rates of up to 1 Mbit/s, significantly enhancing network efficiency for operators that had not yet transitioned to 3G or 4G infrastructures. However, despite its technical improvements, Evolved EDGE was never widely deployed. By the time it became available, most network operators were focused on implementing more advanced technologies like UMTS and LTE. As of 2016, no commercial networks were reported to support Evolved EDGE.

Phase-out

2G, understood as GSM and CdmaOne, has been superseded by newer technologies such as 3G (UMTS / CDMA2000), 4G (LTE / WiMAX) and 5G (5G NR). However, 2G networks were still available as of 2023 in most parts of the world, while notably excluding the majority of carriers in North America, East Asia, and Australasia. [5] [6] [7]

Many modern LTE-enabled devices have the ability to fall back to 2G for phone calls, necessary especially in rural areas where later generations have not yet been implemented. [8] In some places, its successor 3G is being shut down rather than 2G – Vodafone previously announced that it had switched off 3G across Europe in 2020 but still retains 2G as a fallback service. [9] In the US T-Mobile shut down their 3G services while retaining their 2G GSM network. [10] [11]

Various carriers have made announcements that 2G technology in the United States, Japan, Australia, and other countries are in the process of being shut down, or have already shut down 2G services so that carriers can re-use the frequencies for newer technologies (e.g. 4G, 5G). [12] [13]

As a legacy protocol, 2G connectivity is considered insecure. [14] Specifically, there exist well known methods to attack weaknesses in GSM since 2009 [15] with practical use in crime. [16] Attack routes on 2G CdmaOne were found later and remain less publicized. [17]

Android 12 and later provide a network setting to disable 2G connectivity for the device. [18] iOS 16 and later can disable 2G connectivity by enabling Lockdown Mode. [19]

Criticism

In some parts of the world, including the United Kingdom, 2G remains widely used for older feature phones and for internet of things (IoT) devices such as smart meters, eCall systems and vehicle trackers to avoid the high patent licensing cost of newer technologies. [20] Terminating 2G services could leave vulnerable people who rely on 2G infrastructure unable to communicate even with emergency contacts, causing harm and possibly deaths. [21]

Past 2G networks

CountryStatusNetworkShutdown dateStandardNotes
Flag of Aland.svg  Åland Ålcom 2024 GSM 2G availability cannot be guaranteed after 1 Jan 2022, all stations are planned to be shut down in 2024. [22]
Flag of Anguilla.svg  Anguilla Digicel active GSM 900 MHz: 5 MHz GSM + 5 MHz UMTS
1900 MHz: 5 MHz UMTS [23] [24] [25] [26]
FLOW 2024-04-22 GSM [27] [28]
Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg  Antigua and Barbuda No Service APUA 2018-04-01 GSM [29]
Digicel 2024-05-31 GSM [30]
FLOW 2024-07-31 GSM [31]
Flag of Aruba.svg  Aruba partially
unconfirmed		 Digicel 2024-06-30 GSM [32]
SETAR active GSM GSM-900 & GSM-1900
Flag of Australia (converted).svg  Australia No Service Hutchison 3 2006-08-09 cdmaOne [33] [34] [35] [36] [37]
Optus 2017-08-01 GSM 2G shut down in WA and NT on 3 Apr 2017. [38] [39]
Telstra 2008-04-28 cdmaOne [40] [41] [42] [43] [44]
Telstra 2016-12-01 GSM [45]
Vodafone 2018-06-14 GSM [46]
Flag of the Bahamas.svg  Bahamas No Service Aliv N/A(no 2G)
BTC 2024-06-30 GSM [47] [48] [49]
Flag of Bahrain.svg  Bahrain Batelco 2021-11-30 GSM [50]
Flag of Barbados.svg  Barbados partially
unconfirmed		 Digicel 2025-03-31 GSM 900 MHz: 6 MHz GSM /
1800 MHz: 12 MHz GSM [51]
FLOW 2024-04-22 GSM
Flag of Belgium (civil).svg  Belgium Orange 2030 GSM [52]
Telenet 2027 GSM [53]
Proximus 2027 GSM [54]
Flag of Bermuda.svg  Bermuda Digicel active GSM 1900 MHz: 15 MHz GSM + 15 MHz LTE [55]
Oneactive GSM 1900 MHz: 5 MHz GSM + 20 MHz LTE [55]
Flag of Bonaire.svg  Bonaire partially
unconfirmed		 Digicel 2025-03-31 GSM
FLOW 2024-04-22 GSM
Flag of the British Virgin Islands.svg  British Virgin Islands CCTactive GSM 1900 MHz: 10 MHz GSM + 20 MHz LTE [56]
Digicel active GSM 1800 MHz: 15 MHz GSM
1900 MHz: 5 MHz GSM + 10 MHz UMTS [56]
FLOW 2024-04-22 GSM [57]
Flag of Brunei.svg  Brunei No ServiceUNN2021-06-01 GSM National Wholesale Network used by DSTCom, Progresif and imagine. [58] [59]
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada Bell 2019-04-30 cdmaOne Shutdown of CDMA transmitters commenced in remote areas in 2017, followed by an official announcement in June 2018 that 2G devices will lose service soon. [60] [61]
Rogers Wireless TBD GSM 1900 MHz shutdown in Jun 2021.
850 MHz remains active. [62] [63] [64] [65]
SaskTel 2017-07-31 cdmaOne [66] [67]
Telus Mobility 2017-05-31 cdmaOne [68] [69]
Flag of the Cayman Islands.svg  Cayman Islands partially
unconfirmed		 Digicel 2020-07-01 GSM [70] [71]
FLOW 2024-04-22 GSM
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China China Mobile active GSM 900 MHz: 15 MHz GSM
1800 MHz: 25 MHz GSM [72]
China Telecom 2025 cdmaOne Local shutdown commenced on 01 Jun 2020.
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A/B (3G) service also terminates. [72] [73] [74]
China Unicom 2025 GSM Local shutdown commenced on 18 Apr 2018. [72] [75] [76] [74] [77]
Flag of Chile.svg  Chile Entel 2024 Q3 GSM Local shutdown commenced on 22 Jul 2024 in the Arica and Parinacota Region. [78]
Flag of Colombia.svg  Colombia Claro 2023-02-23 GSM [79] [80]
Tigo 2022-11-01 GSM [81]
Flag of Curacao.svg  Curaçao Digicel 2025-03-31 GSM
FLOW 2024-02-29 GSM [82] [83]
Flag of Dominica.svg  Dominica partially
unconfirmed		 Digicel 2027-03-31 GSM
FLOW 2024-03-?? GSM [84]
Flag of France.svg  France Bouygues 2026-12-31 GSM [85]
Orange 2025-12-31 GSM [52]
SFR 2026 GSM [86]
Flag of Germany.svg  Germany Deutsche Telekom 2028-06-30 GSM [87]
Vodafone 2030-12-31 GSM [88]
Telefónica (O2)TBD GSM
Flag of Grenada.svg  Grenada unconfirmed Digicel 2024-03-31 GSM
FLOW 2024-04-22 GSM
Flag of Guam.svg  Guam unconfirmed GTA Teleguam ? GSM
Flag of Hong Kong.svg  Hong Kong 3 2008-11-20 cdmaOne Shut down due to license expiry. Government originally did not allow the license to be renewed due to unpopularity, however the government later reversed the decision and held an auction for CDMA2000 service, which PCCW-HKT (its mobile business now merged into CSL) won the auction and provided CDMA2000 service immediately after 3's license expiry.
3 2021-09-30 GSM [89]
CMHK active GSM 1800 MHz only
CSL 2005 D-AMPS Service previously provided by Pacific Link, which subsequently merged into CSL. Shut down due to license expiry. Government did not allow the license to be renewed due to unpopularity.
CSL 2017-10-31 cdmaOne Service previously provided by PCCW-HKT, which merged its mobile business into CSL. No service for local customers, only served incoming roaming tourists.
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated. [90]
CSL 2024-11-08 GSM [91]
SmarTone 2022-10-14 GSM [92]
Flag of Iceland.svg  Iceland 2025 GSM Per government statement. [93]
Flag of Israel.svg  Israel Hot Mobile 2019-12-31 iDEN [94]
2025 GSM Per government statement. [95]
Flag of Jamaica.svg  Jamaica No Service Digicel 2024-08-31 GSM [96] [97]
FLOW 2024-04-15 GSM [98] [97] [99]
Flag of Japan.svg  Japan No Service au KDDI 2012-07-22 cdmaOne [100]
NTT Docomo 2012-03-31 PDC [101]
Softbank 2010-03-31 PDC [102]
Flag of Jordan.svg  Jordan Umniah 2021-03-11 GSM [103]
Flag of Luxembourg.svg  Luxembourg Orange 2030 GSM [52]
Flag of Macau.svg  Macau No Service CTM 2019-08-01 GSM Service for local customers terminated on 4 Jun 2015, but remained for roaming users. [104] [105] [106]
3 2019-08-01 GSM Service for local customers terminated on 4 Jun 2015, but remained for roaming users. [104] [105]
SmarTone 2019-08-01 GSM Service for local customers terminated on 4 Jun 2015, but remained for roaming users. [104] [105]
Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico AT&T 2019-09-01 GSM [107]
Local shutdown commenced in Q1 2019.
Movistar 2021-01-01 GSM [108]
Flag of Montserrat.svg  Montserrat unconfirmed Digicel ? GSM
FLOW 2024-04-22 GSM
Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands T-Mobile 2021-06-01 /
2023-11-15 (IoT)		 GSM [109]
Flags of New Caledonia.svg  New Caledonia OPT-NC 2025 GSM Shutdown commenced in 2022. [110]
Flag of New Zealand.svg  New Zealand 2degrees 2018-03-15 GSM [111]
Spark 2012-07-31 cdmaOne [112] [113]
Flag of Norway.svg  Norway Telenor 2025 GSM [114]
Telia 2025 GSM [114]
Flag of Panama.svg  Panama Digicel 2022-06-30 GSM Complete shutdown of operations and market exit. [115] [116] [117] [118]
Flag of Peru.svg  Peru Bitel N/A(no 2G)
Flag of Poland.svg  Poland Orange 2030 GSM [52]
Flag of Romania.svg  Romania Orange 2030 GSM [52]
Flag of Saint Kitts and Nevis.svg  Saint Kitts and Nevis Digicel 2027-03-31 GSM
FLOW 2024-04-22 GSM [119]
Flag of Saint Lucia.svg  Saint Lucia partially
unconfirmed		 Digicel 2027-03-31 GSM
FLOW 2024-04-22 GSM [120]
Flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.svg  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Digicel 2027-03-31 GSM
FLOW 2023-09-30 GSM [121] [122] [123] [124]
Flag of Singapore.svg  Singapore No Service M1 2017-04-18 GSM [125]
Singtel 2017-04-18 GSM [125]
StarHub 2017-04-18 GSM [125]
Flag of Sint Maarten.svg  Sint Maarten
Flag of Saba.svg  Saba
Flag of Sint Eustatius.svg  Sint Eustatius 		No ServiceTelCell2019-01-01 GSM [126]
FLOW (UTS)2017-09-26 GSM [127]
Flag of Slovakia.svg  Slovakia Orange 2030 GSM [52]
Flag of South Africa.svg  South Africa TBD GSM Per government statement. [128] [129]
Flag of South Korea.svg  South Korea No Service KT 2012-03-19 cdmaOne CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rel. 0 (3G) service has also terminated. [130]
LG Uplus 2021-06-30 cdmaOne CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A/B (3G) service has also terminated. [131]
SK Telecom 2020-07-27 cdmaOne CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rel. 0 (3G) service has also terminated. [132]
Flag of Spain.svg  Spain Orange 2030 GSM [52]
Flag of Sweden.svg  Sweden Net4Mobility (Telenor/Tele2)2025-12-31 GSM 2G network will be shut down by the end of 2025. [133] [134] [135]
Telia 2027 GSM Shutdown pushed back from 2025 to 2027. [136] [137]
Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg   Switzerland No Service Salt 2020-12-31 GSM Shutdown commenced on 1 Jul 2020. A few single 2G-only sites remained until Sep 2023 to preserve CSFB functionality. [138] [139] [140]
Sunrise 2023-01-03 GSM With the introduction of S-RAN in 2018 phaseout was previously postponed to 2022. [141] [142] [143]
Swisscom 2021-04-07 GSM Official shutdown on 31 Dec 2020 (guaranteed availability). [144] [145] [146]
Flag of the Republic of China.svg  Taiwan No Service Chunghwa Telecom 2017-06-30 GSM [147]
FarEasTone 2017-06-30 GSM [147]
Taiwan Mobile 2017-06-30 GSM [147]
Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg  Trinidad and Tobago Digicel 2024-12-31 GSM [148] [149] [150]
bmobile (TSTT)TBD GSM 850 MHz: 2.5 MHz GSM + 5 MHz UMTS [151] [152]
Flag of the Turks and Caicos Islands.svg  Turks and Caicos Islands Digicel 2025-06-30 GSM 900 MHz: 9.8 MHz GSM [153]
FLOW 2024-04-22 GSM [154]
Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg  United Arab Emirates No Service Du 2023-12-31 GSM [155]
Etisalat 2023-12-31 GSM [156]
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom 2033 GSM Per government statement on confirmation by mobile providers. [157] [158] [159]
Flag of the United States.svg  United States
Flag of Puerto Rico.svg  Puerto Rico
Flag of the United States Virgin Islands.svg  US Virgin Islands 		AT&T 2017-01-01 GSM [160]
Cellcom
(US only)		2023-12-01 cdmaOne CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated. [161]
Claro
(PR only)		2028-12-31 GSM
Commnet Wireless (Choice)
(US only)		2022-12-31 cdmaOne CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated. [162]
Copper Valley Wireless2022-09-30 cdmaOne CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated. [163]
T-Mobile 2024-10 GSM Shutdown commenced on 1 Sep 2024. [164] [165]
T-Mobile (Sprint)2022-05-31 cdmaOne CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated.
Shutdown commenced on 31 Mar 2022. [166] [167] [168] [169]
UScellular
(US only)		2024-01-14 cdmaOne CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated. [170] [171]
Verizon
(US only)		2022-12-31 cdmaOne CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated. [172]
Flag of Venezuela.svg  Venezuela Digitel 2025 GSM Shutdown commenced in May 2021. [173]
Movilnet 2025 GSM [173]
Movistar 2025 GSM Shutdown commenced on 01 Jul 2022. [173]
Flag of Vietnam.svg  Vietnam No Service Gmobile 2024-10-16 GSM per government regulation [174]
Mobifone 2024-10-16 GSM per government regulation [174]
Vietnamobile N/A(no 2G)
Viettel 2024-10-16 GSM per government regulation [174]
Vinaphone 2024-10-16 GSM per government regulation [174]

See also

Related Research Articles

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References

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  2. ↑ "2G Sunset Brings Faster Speeds, Newer Technologies". 16 January 2017. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
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  8. ↑ "SUNSET ON 2G/3G MOBILE NETWORKS? NOT EXACTLY..." CSL Group. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
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  12. ↑ Serr, Melanie (5 April 2017). "What You Need To Know About the 2G Network Shutdown". Geotab Blog. Archived from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 6 October 2019.
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  18. ↑ Amadeo, Ron (14 January 2022). "EFF praises Android's new 2G kill switch, wants Apple to follow suit". Ars Technica. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  19. ↑ "About Lockdown Mode". Apple. Archived from the original on 20 June 2024. Retrieved 28 June 2024.
  20. ↑ "Freedom of Information: Right to know request" (PDF). Ofcom. 3 June 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
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