In Florida,the storm affected the southern portion of the state and in the panhandle. While it was crossing the state,the hurricane's convection was asymmetrical,primarily located to the south and east of the center. As a result,high rainfall totals occurred in the Miami area,peaking at 16.43in (417mm) in Perrine. The rains caused flooding,and the combination of rains and winds downed trees and power lines,leaving 1.45million people without power. Damage in South Florida was estimated at $523million (2005USD),mostly as a result of crop damage. Further south,the hurricane spawned a tornado in the Florida Keys. In the island chain,Katrina caused heavy rainfall and gusty winds. The storm produced a 5.37ft (1.64m)storm surge in Pensacola along the panhandle. High waves caused beach erosion and closed nearby roadways. There were five tornadoes in northwestern Florida. Damage was estimated along the panhandle at $100million. Throughout the state,the hurricane killed 14people,of which 6 were directly related to the storm's effects. Due to damage from Katrina,11Florida counties were declared federal disaster areas.
Hurricane Katrina's winds and storm surge reached the Mississippi coastline on the morning of August 29,2005,[1][2] beginning a two-day path of destruction through central Mississippi;by 10a.m. CDT on August 29,2005,the eye of Katrina began traveling up the entire state,only slowing from hurricane-force winds at Meridian near 7p.m. and entering Tennessee as a tropical storm.[3] Many coastal towns of Mississippi (and Louisiana) had already been obliterated,in a single night.[4] Hurricane-force winds reached coastal Mississippi by 2a.m.[1] and lasted over 17 hours,spawning 11 tornadoes (51 in other states[2]) and a 28-foot (8.5m) storm surge[2] flooding 6–12 miles (9.7–19.3km) inland. Many,unable to evacuate,[5] survived by climbing to attics or rooftops,or swimming to higher buildings and trees. The worst property damage from Katrina occurred in coastal Mississippi,where all towns flooded over 90% in hours,and waves destroyed many historic buildings,with others gutted to the 3rd story. Afterward,238people died in Mississippi,and all counties in Mississippi were declared disaster areas,49 for full federal assistance.[6][7] Regulations were changed later for emergency centers and casinos. The emergency command centers were moved higher because all 3 coastal centers flooded at 30ft (9.1m) above sea level. Casinos were allowed on land rather than limited to floating casino barges as in 2005.
More than one million people in Mississippi were affected,and almost 6 months later,the extent of the devastation in Mississippi was still described as "staggering" in USA Today on February 16,2006:[8] "The Mississippi Gulf Coast has been devastated. The extent of the devastation in Mississippi is also staggering. Since Katrina hit,more than half a million people in Mississippi have applied for assistance from FEMA. In a state of just 2.9million residents,that means more than one in six Mississippians have sought help.
Background
Satellite image of Hurricane Katrina approaching Florida on August 25
In the preceding 2004 season,Florida was affected by four hurricanes,including hurricanes Frances and Jeanne which hit Martin County and caused billions in damage.[9]
Hurricane Katrina developed as Tropical Depression Twelve over the Bahamas on August23,partially from the remains of Tropical Depression Ten. As it moved slowly northwestward,it developed organized convection,or thunderstorms,and it intensified into a tropical storm on August24. A building ridge turned Katrina to the west,[10] bringing it over the Gulf Stream. With warm waters and favorable outflow,the storm continued strengthening.[11] At around 2100UTC on August25,Katrina attained hurricane status,based on observations from the Hurricane Hunters.[12] Intensification of the ridge to its north caused the hurricane to turn to the west-southwest,and as it approached the Florida coastline Katrina developed a well-defined eye. At 2230UTC on August25,Katrina made landfall near the border of Miami-Dade and Broward counties with winds of around 80mph (130km/h). The hurricane moved southwestward and crossed Florida in about six hours,during which its eye became better defined over the warm and shallow waters of the Everglades. During its passage,northerly wind shear shifted the deepest convection to the south and east of the center,and Katrina briefly weakened to a tropical storm before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on August26. After emerging from the state,Katrina intensified into one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes,becoming a Category 5 on the Saffir–Simpson scale. Katrina moved ashore in southeastern Louisiana on August29,and then made another landfall near the border of Louisiana and Mississippi. Even after making landfall,it kept its strength as a hurricane almost 150mi (240km) inland,before becoming a tropical storm near Meridian,Mississippi. It weakened into a tropical depression near Clarksville,Tennessee,and later got absorbed by a cold front in the Great Lakes region.[10]
Preparations
The forecast for the estimated landfall of Hurricane Katrina,2005.
About nine hours after the system developed on August24,the National Hurricane Center (NHC) issued a tropical storm watch from the Seven Mile Bridge to Vero Beach. Later that day,the watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning and hurricane watch from Florida City to Vero Beach after the storm's intensification became apparent. About 25hours before Katrina made landfall,the tropical storm watch was extended northward to Titusville,and a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch was issued for Lake Okeechobee. Early on August25,a hurricane warning was issued from Florida City to Vero Beach and for Lake Okeechobee. In southeastern Florida,the lead time for the hurricane watch and warning occurred 31.5 and 19.5hours before landfall,respectively;both were 16.5hours less than the desired lead time. A tropical storm warning was also issued from Florida Key,southward through the Florida Keys to the Dry Tortugas,and northward along the western coast to Longboat Key. The warning in the Florida Keys occurred only nine hours before the onset of tropical storm force winds.[10]
Before Katrina moved ashore Florida,schools and businesses were closed in the Miami area. Cruise ships altered their paths due to seaports in southeastern Florida closing.[13] Officials in Miami-Dade County advised residents in mobile homes or with special needs to evacuate. To the north in Broward County,residents east of the Intracoastal Waterway or in mobile homes were advised to leave their homes. Evacuation orders were issued for offshore islands in Palm Beach County,and for residents in mobile homes south of Lantana Road. Shelters were opened across the region.[14] Officials closed the Miami International Airport,[15]Fort Lauderdale –Hollywood International Airport,Key West International Airport,and Florida Keys Marathon Airport due to the storm. In Monroe and Collier counties,schools were closed,and a shelter was opened in Immokalee.[16] On August25,Florida's Emergency Operations Center was activated in Tallahassee to monitor the progress of the hurricane.[17]
Also on August 25,when Hurricane Katrina crossed the southern tip of Florida,government offices in Mississippi had already discussed emergency evacuation plans for days. On August 26,the Mississippi National Guard was activated,raising the level of concern,and on August 27,the state government activated its Emergency Operations Center,and local governments began issuing evacuation orders:the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency (MEMA)[18] advised not opening shelters in coastal counties. However,on August 28,the Red Cross also opened shelters in coastal counties,and by 7:00pm,11 counties and eleven cities issued evacuation orders,a number which increased to 41 counties and 61 cities before the following morning,when Katrina came ashore. Moreover,57 emergency shelters were established on coastal communities,with 31 additional shelters available to open if needed....[19]
By 4:30am. CDT,on August 29,2005,just hours before Hurricane Katrina landfall,many shelters in Mississippi were full to capacity,including many Red Cross shelters,the Jackson Coliseum (which allowed pets),and five special-needs shelters. The shelters had filled within 24 hours of opening.[citation needed]
Since the evacuation was not total,many people survived the 30-foot (9.1m) storm tide by climbing into the second-floor attic,or knocking out walls and ceiling boards to climb onto the roof or nearby trees.[23] Tree trunks remained standing,[24] even near the beaches,where many houses were leveled. Other people had swum to taller buildings or trees.[25] Over 100people were rescued from roof tops and trees in Mississippi.[citation needed]
Although the population of the three (3) coastal counties had been nearly 400,000,and the storm tide was 20–30 feet (6.1–9.1m) with coastal winds 75–120mph (121–193km/h),fewer than 250people died in Mississippi during Hurricane Katrina.
Amtrak,America's rail passenger carrier,announced that the southbound City of New Orleans passenger trains from Chicago,from August 29 through September 3,would terminate in Memphis,Tennessee,rather than their usual destination of New Orleans. The corresponding northbound trains would also originate in Memphis. The southbound Crescent from New York City,for the same period,terminated in Atlanta,with the corresponding northbound trains originating in Atlanta as well. Amtrak's westbound Sunset Limited originated in San Antonio,Texas,rather than its normal origin point of Orlando,Florida. Amtrak announced that no alternate transportation options would be made available into or out of the affected area.[26]
The National Weather Center's (NWS) services are provided collaboratively with several different offices that specialize in certain areas regarding the weather. Some of these offices include the National Hurricane Center (NHC) and the Hydro-meteorological Prediction Center (HPC). The NHC is a component for the National Centers for Environmental Prediction,and the HPC is a provider of weather forecasts and analyses that support the NWS.[27] Along with this,the HPC supplies the NHC with precipitation statements. After what is considered a tropical storm progresses inward on land and the NHS terminates any alerts they put out,the HPC then accepts the authority of watching over the system. The two offices work hand in hand with one another to ensure the most accurate information is released to the public.[27]
The storm that became Hurricane Katrina was recognized by both the NHC and HPC on August 22. After waiting a few days to monitor development,the HPC started formulating precipitation statements for Hurricane Katrina on August 24. on August 30,the HPC accepted responsibility for the release of warnings regarding Katrina. On August 31,the hurricane system was consumed by a system near the Great Lakes of the east,so the HPC terminated their advisories for Katrina.[27]
The NHC and HPC are essential to one another,especially in that the HPC routinely executes service backup for the NHC. An example of this is when the HPC conducted a respective amount of drills for service backup in the summer months leading up to Katrina. During Hurricane Katrina's landfall,the NHC's implementation and execution of policies was seen as excellent by many government emergency officials. Throughout the tracking of Hurricane Katrina,the NHC's forecasts were very consistent and provided strong evidence for the intensity and power of the storm. Not only were the forecasts made by the NHC accurate,but they were also timely,which allowed for workforce management operation members to in turn provide accurate information to their counterparts. As well as the accuracy and timeliness of the NHC's forecast,it was precisely expected that Hurricane Katrina would be a massive hurricane that caused detrimental effects to the northern Gulf coast.[27]
By August 26,the possibility of unprecedented cataclysm was already being considered. Some computer models were putting the city of New Orleans right in the center of their track probabilities,and the chances of a direct hit were forecast at 17% (with strike probability rising to 29% by August 28).[28] This scenario was considered a potential catastrophe because 80% of the New Orleans metropolitan area is below sea level along Lake Pontchartrain. Since the storm surge produced by the hurricane's right-front quadrant (containing the strongest winds) was more than 20ft (6 m) near Biloxi,emergency management officials in New Orleans feared that the storm surge could go over the tops of levees protecting the city,causing major flooding.[29] This risk of devastation had been known for some time;previous studies by FEMA and the Army Corps of Engineers had warned that a direct hurricane strike on New Orleans could lead to massive flooding,which would lead to thousands of drowning deaths,as well as many more suffering from disease and dehydration,as the flood waters slowly receded from the city.[30][31][32]
At a news conference 10:00am on August 28,shortly after Katrina was upgraded to a Category 5 storm,New Orleans mayor Ray Nagin ordered the first ever mandatory evacuation of the city,calling Katrina,"a storm that most of us have long feared" and also saying it was "a once-in-a-lifetime event".[33] To speed up the evacuations,authorities used contraflow lane reversal on Interstate 10 leading west of New Orleans,as well as on Interstate 55 and 59 leading north from the city. The city government also established a "refuge of last resort" for citizens who could not leave the city,at the massive Louisiana Superdome,which housed approximately 26,000people with food and water for two days as the storm came ashore.[34] The Louisiana National Guard delivered three truckloads of water and seven truckloads of MRE's to the Superdome,"enough to supply 15,000people for three days" said Colonel Jay Mayeaux,director of the Department of Homeland Security's office for emergency preparedness.[34]
Louisiana's hurricane evacuation plan calls for local governments in areas along and near the coast to call for evacuations in three phases,starting with the immediate coast 50 hours before the start of tropical storm force winds. Persons in areas designated Phase II begin evacuating 40 hours before the onset of tropical storm winds and those in Phase III areas (including New Orleans) evacuate 30 hours before the start of such winds.[35]
However,many parishes were not able to provide sufficient transportation for citizens who did not have private means of evacuation,and many private care-taking facilities who relied on the same bus companies and ambulance services for evacuation were unable to evacuate their charges. Fuel and rental cars were in short supply and many forms of public transportation had been shut down well before the storm arrived.[36] The result was that hundreds of thousands of residents and tourists were unable to evacuate and remained in the city. Nonetheless,some estimates claimed that 90-92% of the 1.3million residents of the New Orleans metropolitan region evacuated including 80% of Orleans parish. More than 80,000 people were homeless at the time.
Months before Hurricane Katrina made landfall on New Orleans,a hurricane simulation was created to warn the city of a potential hurricane crisis and its devastating outcomes. The simulation was named Pam,in which a category 3 hurricane's strong winds and flooding caused the levee system of New Orleans to fail and leave the city underwater. Many emergency officials were stunned by the lack of response to Hurricane Pam's simulation,expressing their concerns that if a disaster like this did occur,the effects would be catastrophic.[37] It was indeed confirmed that Pam's disaster plan was seen by FEMA and Louisiana state officials,to no avail. Under Hurricane Pam's disaster plan,it was decided that preparations for the hurricane should have been happening for three days prior to the hurricane's arrival on land. In New Orleans,a mandatory evacuation was not ordered by the city until approximately 20 hours before Hurricane Katrina made landfall. On top of this,it was important that officials representing FEMA had critical resources ready to go before the storm hit the city,which they failed to do so. While it is true that the authorities of the city and state government were mainly in charge of moving people to safety,Hurricane Pam's disaster plan noted that there was a scarcity of resources in support shelters for the state of Louisiana.[37] Shortly thereafter the effects of Hurricane Katrina were evident,President Bush made it clear that he wanted there to be an investigation regarding the government's preparedness for and response to Hurricane Katrina.[37]
Impact
Total rainfall from Katrina in the United States. Data for the New Orleans area are not available
Across the southeastern United States,Hurricane Katrina contributed to 1,392fatalities,making it the deadliest hurricanes in the United States since the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane. Most of the deaths were in Louisiana or Mississippi,caused by flooding. However,there were hundreds of indirect deaths,such as related to cardiovascular issues or traffic accidents. Katrina caused significant damage where it moved ashore,with monetary damage estimated at $125billion,making it the costliest United States hurricane on record,later tied by Hurricane Harvey in 2017.[10]
Florida
Overall,Hurricane Katrina killed 14people in Florida,of which 6 were directly related to the storm. Downed trees killed three people in Broward County.[10] Three people drowned in Miami-Dade County,two of whom on boats.[22] Six of the indirect deaths were in South Florida,of which three were from carbon monoxide poisoning caused by generators,one was due to a vehicle accident,one occurred during debris cleanup,and one was associated with a lack of electricity. At least five people were injured due to carbon monoxide poisoning. Overall damage totaled $623million (2005USD).[22]
While moving across Florida,Katrina had an asymmetric area of thunderstorms,which placed the strongest winds and rainfall over Miami-Dade County.[10] The highest precipitation total related to hurricane in the United States was 16.43in (417mm) in Perrine,or about halfway between Miami and Homestead.[38] Of the total,15.10in (384mm) fell in 24hours.[22] During its passage,the eye of the hurricane moved directly over the office of the National Hurricane Center,which reported a wind gust of 87mph (140km/h).[10] The strongest sustained winds in Florida was a report of 72mph (116km/h) on the roof of the Rosenstiel School of Marine,Atmospheric,and Earth Science in Virginia Key. The same station recorded a gust of 94mph (151km/h).[22] Unofficially,wind gusts reached 97mph (156km/h) at Homestead General Aviation Airport. The hurricane's accompanying storm surge was small,estimated at 2ft (0.61m).[10] Consequentially,there was minor beach erosion and isolated coastal flooding.[22] Katrina weakened into a tropical storm while moving across Monroe County.[10] Tides reached 3 to 5ft (0.91 to 1.52m) in mainland Monroe County,which flooded several houses and vehicles in Flamingo in Everglades National Park.[22] Most of the Florida Keys reported tropical storm-force winds. A station on Key West reported sustained winds of 61mph (98km/h),with gusts to 74mph (119km/h). While the storm passed to its north,the city reported a storm surge of about 2ft (0.61m). After its final landfall,Katrina produced a storm surge of about 5.37ft (1.64m) in Pensacola.[10]
The heavy rainfall flooded neighborhoods in the area,[10] damaging over 100houses.[22] The storm left about 1.4million people without power in Palm Beach,Broward,and Miami-Dade counties.[16] In Broward County north of Katrina's first landfall,the hurricane dropped light rainfall,ranging from 2 to 4in (51 to 102mm).[10] Train and bus service was disrupted in the Miami area.[15] Widespread flooding affected crop nurseries and greenhouses,[39] and crop damage totaled $423million.[22] The storm's outer rainbands spawned an F2 tornado in Marathon on August26,which damaged an airport hangar and several homes. This was one of only six F2 tornadoes in the Florida Keys since 1950.[10][16][40] Similar to the Miami area,Katrina dropped heavy rainfall in the Florida Keys,reaching 10.05in (255mm) in Key West.[10] In the area,the storm left about 5,000people without power.[16] After Katrina re-intensified into a hurricane,a station on the Dry Tortugas reported sustained winds of 82mph (132km/h),with gusts to 105mph (169km/h).[10]
Light rains and winds spread into the MelbourneNational Weather Service region. Kennedy Space Center reported wind gusts to 46mph (74km/h),although there was no damage or erosion in the area.[41] In southwestern Florida,the storm produced a storm surge of 1.13ft (0.34m) in St. Petersburg.[10] In the central portion of the state,some areas for pasture were flooded due to outer rainbands.[39] The Florida panhandle was still recovering from Hurricane Dennis when Katrina moved ashore. In St. Marks,the surge flooded several businesses,and in Walton County,high tides flooded several roads,including portions of U.S. Highways 98 and 331. The storm caused moderate to severe beach erosion along the gulf coast,[22] and washed sand onto many coastal roads.[42] Winds along the Florida panhandle peaked at 56mph (90km/h) in Pensacola,with gusts to 71mph (114km/h).[10] High winds briefly closed the Interstate 10 bridge over Escambia Bay in Pensacola. The outer rainbands of the hurricane spawned five tornadoes,all of them weak and not very damaging. Rainfall along the panhandle reached 7.80in (198mm) in Philpot,which caused flooding.[22] The winds caused damage to some trees and structures and there was some minor flooding in the panhandle. There were two indirect fatalities from Katrina in Walton County as a result of a traffic accident.[10] Along the Florida panhandle,77,000 customers lost power.[43]
Alabama
When Katrina moved ashore,it produced hurricane-force winds across southwestern Alabama. Dauphin Island recorded sustained winds of 74mph (119km/h),while the USSAlabama docked in Mobile Bay recorded gusts to 104mph (167km/h).[44] The hurricane also washed ashore with a significant storm surge that flooded coastal portions of southern Alabama,reaching several miles inland.[10] The Port of Mobile recorded a high tide of 11.45ft (3.49m),which was nearly as high as the record set during the 1916 Gulf Coast hurricane. The floodwaters inundated downtown Mobile,closing several businesses as well as the George Wallace Tunnel.[44] Two indirect deaths were reported after a fatal car accident during the storm.[10] Rainfall in Alabama reached 6.59in (167mm) at a station near Red Bay.[45] Katrina also spawned 16tornadoes in the state.[10]
On Dauphin Island,a storm surge of 15ft (4.6m) moved ashore,destroying over 350 houses.[46] Only 50 have since been rebuilt.[47] As a result of the storm surge,an oil rig under construction along the Mobile River was dislodged,sending it down the river where it struck the Cochrane Bridge. Another offshore oil rig washed up on the beaches of Dauphin Island.[10] Part of Battleship Parkway,or "The Causeway",which connects parts of Mobile Bay together,collapsed,causing a temporary closure.[48] The strong winds knocked down trees and power lines.[49] Over 656,000 customers in Alabama lost power,[50] causing it to have,at the time,the second most power outages for a storm in Alabama history behind only Hurricane Ivan.[51]
Mississippi
Figure KW10:Katrina Wind speed at 10am. CDT,August 29,2005:hurricane eye (central blue hub) a few miles to the west of Waveland,Mississippi.
Hurricane Katrina made its final landfall near the Louisiana/Mississippi border,with estimated sustained winds of 120mph (195km/h). Anemometers failed during the storm,leading to an incomplete wind observation record;the highest official wind gust was 98mph (157km/h),recorded at Keesler Air Force Base in Biloxi. An unofficial station in Poplarville recorded wind gusts to 135mph (217km/h). The hurricane also produced 11tornadoes in the state. While moving ashore,Katrina produced a storm surge along the coast that reached 12mi (19km) inland,with a high water mark of 27.8ft (8,500mm) recorded at Pass Christian.[10] Rainfall in the state reached 9.84in (250mm) in Hancock County.[45]
Statewide,Katrina directly caused at least 228fatalities,172 of them directly,mostly due to the storm surge along the Mississippi coastline.[10][52] The powerful waves eroded beaches and washed away entire coastal towns.[10] The National Weather Service described the effects as "almost total destruction... along the immediate coast in Hancock and Harrison [counties]."[52] Katrina destroyed thousands of buildings in the state,with insured damages reaching $9.8billion statewide.[53] High waters covered parts of I-10.[10]
As buildings collapsed,water-tight appliances floated,sending refrigerators and dishwashers to ram other buildings and block streets.[54] Millions of homes and buildings were affected,along with ships,boats,and more than 40 offshore oil rigs.
Roadways and railways were put out of service by excessive amounts of debris and occasional collapse (most notably the I-10 Twin Span Bridge). Costs of debris removal in the Gulf Coast region is estimated at $200million. Until major roadways (US 49,US 59) could be cleared,deliverers of supplies and other emergency relief were forced to detour through highway 609 or highway 43/603,though these routes were not officially posted.[55]
The three counties most affected by the storm were Hancock County,Harrison County,and Jackson County,although almost all counties had damage,and 47 counties were declared full disaster areas. Mississippi Emergency Management Agency (MEMA) officials also recorded deaths in Hinds,Warren,and Leake counties. About 800,000people through the state experienced power outages,which is almost a third of the population.[56]
Surveying the damage the day after Katrina's passing,Mississippi governor Haley Barbour called the scene indescribable,saying "I can only imagine that this is what Hiroshima looked like 60 years ago."[57] The mayor of Biloxi,A.J. Holloway,told the Biloxi Sun Herald,"This is our tsunami."[58] Relief and rebuilding efforts initially focused on restoring power and clearing communities of debris up to eight feet (2.4m) in depth.[59]
Because of federal intent to rebuild or recover projects of the US Federal Government,the damage assessment to federal buildings in Mississippi covers actual costs:the amount needed to resume operations at market costs. The following federal projects are described in terms of damage,along with the cost to resume operations:[7]
$1.987billion:as requested by President George W. Bush,for Navy Shipbuilding and Conversion;these funds will assist Northrop Grumman to "replace destroyed or damaged equipment,prepare and recover naval vessels under contract;and provide for cost adjustments." Ships were damaged in Pascagoula.
(unknown):as increased funding for USDA housing programs which provide subsidized loans and housing repair funding.
$75million:in wildlife habitat restoration,for the Corps of Engineers to enhance estuarine habitats in Mississippi:following the Governor's proposal regarding oyster reef and coastal marsh restoration. The Mississippi Department of Marine Resources will assist the Corps as these projects develop.
$75million:for the Corps of Engineers on various coastal projects:to accelerate completion of authorized projects along the Mississippi Gulf Coast.
$1.1billion:to repair vital federal facilities in Mississippi,including:
$292.5 million for the repair and renovation of the VA hospital in Biloxi.
$45million for the Armed Forces Retirement Home in Gulfport.
The cost amounts were decided for work continuing in 2006. Note that repairs include modern renovation,since it is not feasible to assess damage in terms of restoring federal buildings to the year they were built. However,the costs provide a condensed measure of the construction damage,without counting the millions of lost roof tiles,thousands of broken windows,etc.
Coastal counties
The three coastal counties of Mississippi,populated by about 400,000people (almost the population of central New Orleans),had been mostly evacuated before Katrina flooded the 100-mile (160km) region. Katrina's storm surge was the most extensive,as well as the highest,in the documented history of the United States;large portions of Hancock County,Harrison County,[1] and Jackson County were inundated by the storm surge,affecting most of the populated areas.[60] Surge covered almost the entire lower half of Hancock County,destroying the coastal communities of Clermont Harbor and Waveland,and much of Bay St. Louis,and flowed up the Jourdan River,flooding Kiln. In Harrison County,Pass Christian was completely inundated,along with a narrow strip of land to the east along the coast,which includes the cities of Long Beach and Gulfport;the flooding was more extensive in communities such as D'Iberville,which borders the Back Bay of Biloxi. Biloxi,on a peninsula between the Back Bay and the coast,was particularly hard hit,especially the low-lying Point Cadet area.
Damage to the riverboat Palace Casino located in Biloxi,Mississippi,resulting from Hurricane Katrina
Several casinos,which were floated on barges to comply with Mississippi land-based gambling laws,were washed hundreds of yards inland by waves.[61] According to MSNBC,a 28-foot (8.5m) storm surge came ashore wiping out 90% of the buildings along the Biloxi-Gulfport coastline. A number of streets and bridges were washed away,including the bridge sections of U.S. Highway 90. In particular,the roadway portion of the U.S. Highway 90 bridge between Bay St. Louis and Pass Christian was completely destroyed by the storm;only the support structure was left.
In Jackson County,storm surge flowed up the wide river estuary,with the combined surge and freshwater floods cutting the county in half. Over 90% of Pascagoula,the easternmost coastal city in Mississippi,was flooded from surge. Other Jackson County communities such as Porteaux Bay were destroyed,and St. Martin was hard hit,along with Ocean Springs,Moss Point,Gautier,and Escatawpa.
Hancock County was the scene of the final landfall of the eye of Hurricane Katrina,causing total devastation in Waveland,Bay St. Louis,Pearlington,and Clermont Harbor,as well as southern Diamondhead. The bridge between Bay St. Louis and Pass Christian was destroyed.
Katrina's 28-foot (8.5m) storm surge,and 55-foot (17m) sea waves,[62] practically obliterated Waveland,Mississippi,and state officials said that it took a harder hit from the wind and water than any other town along the coast. Katrina came ashore during the high tide of 8:01am,[63] raising the storm tide by 2ft (0.61m),to over 30 feet (9.1m). The storm dragged away almost every structure within one-half mile (0.80km) of the beach,leaving driveways and walkways that went to nowhere.[25] The death toll was estimated at 50.
In Bay St. Louis,Mississippi,one foot (0.30m) of water swamped the Emergency Operations Center at the Hancock County courthouse,which sits 30 feet (9.1m) above sea level.[64] Katrina also destroyed the first floor and dormitories of Saint Stanislaus College.[citation needed]
The destruction brought forth by Katrina also caused about one-quarter of the labor force to lose their jobs,with the unemployment rate reaching as high as 24.3%.[65]
Harrison County was hit particularly hard by the hurricane and the storm surge. Its two largest coastal cities,Biloxi and Gulfport,suffered severe damage and a number of casualties. By September 2005 126people were already confirmed dead.[66] Smaller coastal towns were also severely damaged. Much of Long Beach and most of Pass Christian,which bore the brunt of Category 5 Hurricane Camille in 1969,were leveled. Nearby Gulfshore Baptist Assembly,a camp owned and operated by the Mississippi Baptist Convention,was permanently closed,and recommendations were made to build a new facility elsewhere.[67]
Damage to the Biloxi-Ocean Springs bridge
In the tourist town of Biloxi,widespread damage was reported as several of the city's attractions were destroyed. The lower three floors of many high-rise casino-hotels were gutted,as in the former Grand Casino of Gulfport,or the Imperial Palace (IP Hotel and Casino) or Beau Rivage in Biloxi.[68] Many restaurants were destroyed and several casino barges had been washed out of the water and onto land. Residents who survived Hurricane Camille stated that Katrina was "much worse," with a storm surge reportedly reaching further inland than the previous catastrophic storm. Katrina's wind estimates were lighter than Camille's,and the central air pressure was slightly higher,but Camille was also a much smaller storm so the greater impact of the storm surge may be due to the size. Keesler Air Force Base,also located in Biloxi,reported extensive damage to its facilities. Gulfport authorities reported to news station CNN that up to ten feet (3.0m) of water covered downtown streets. The Biloxi-Ocean Springs Bridge was also destroyed,and US 90 had heavy debris and severe damage to the roadbed.
Thirty of the confirmed deaths in Harrison County were at the St. Charles apartment complex,said Kelly Jakubic with the county's Emergency Operations Center.[69] The apartment complex was reported,by local news sources,to have collapsed with dozens of residents inside. FOX News also reported deaths at the Quiet Water Beach apartments.[58] (A later investigation by Biloxi's WLOX could not confirm any deaths at these apartments.[61]
Rebuilding in Harrison County proceeded at different paces in different towns. Biloxi was greatly helped by the resurgence of the casino industry,while smaller towns such as Pass Christian did not have an economic base with which to start the reconstruction effort. By January 2007,almost a year and a half after the Hurricane,Pass Christian had still not yet begun rebuilding its city buildings,and volunteer labor was involved in rebuilding private homes in the town.[70]
Hurricane Katrina made landfall in Louisiana at 6:45am local time on August 29, 2005, as a Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of 127 miles per hour (204km/h), near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana and a 22-foot storm surge. The eye of the storm passed 27 miles east of downtown New Orleans at 8:30am. The primary areas that were affected were southeastern Louisiana, including the city of New Orleans, Louisiana, the parishes of St. Tammany (Slidell), Jefferson (Gretna), Terrebonne (Houma), Plaquemines (Buras), Lafourche (Thibodaux), and St. Bernard (Chalmette).
According to officials nearly one million people were temporarily without electricity in Louisiana for several weeks. On September 1, 2005, 800,000 homes were without electricity. Numerous roadways were flooded or damaged and many evacuations conducted by boat and helicopter.
Approximately 46,000 National Guard were dispatched to the area as part of the disaster relief effort. The United States Navy also announced that four amphibious ships would be sent from Norfolk, Virginia within a few days to assist the relief efforts. The US Coast Guard rescued 1,259 survivors off rooftops by Wednesday morning August 31, less than two days after landfall, and more than 1,000 the next day. In less than two weeks 12,535 flood victims were saved by helicopter. In all, the Coast Guard made 33,544 rescues by helicopter and boats.[71]
By July 1, 2006, when new population estimates were calculated by the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of the state of Louisiana declined by 219,563, or 4.87%.[72]
Just as matters were beginning to improve in 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf in April 2010 caused massive amounts of oil to come ashore in the wetlands and marshes in Plaquemines Parish and other areas of coastal Louisiana near New Orleans that had been most heavily damaged by Katrina, and the spill will likely reach other states that were also affected by the storm (the hurricane had caused or exacerbated oil spills on a smaller scale when it hit).
An aerial view of the flooding near downtown New Orleans. The Superdome is at center.
Mayor Ray Nagin did not order a mandatory evacuation of the city until August 28, 2005.[73] Approximately one million people had fled the city and its surrounding suburbs by the evening of August 28, while about 100,000people remained in the city, with about 10,000 taking shelter at the Louisiana Superdome which had been prepared to accommodate only 800. Eventually, 30,000 arrived at the Superdome before they were evacuated. By August 31, eighty percent (80%) of the city of New Orleans was flooded by Hurricane Katrina, with some parts of the city under 20 feet (6.1m), of water. Over 50 breaches in region's levee system were cataloged, five of which resulted in massive flooding of New Orleans. The 17th Street Canal levee was just south of the Hammond Highway Bridge. Levees adjacent to London Avenue breached in two locations: one near Robert E. Lee Boulevard and one between Filmore Avenue and Mirabeau Avenue. Two breaches also occurred in the Industrial Canal adjacent to Surekote Road. Levee repair efforts were undertaken, involving reinforcing the levees with 3,000 pounds (1,400kg) sandbags deployed by U.S. ArmyChinook and Black Hawk helicopters. The 17th Street Canal levee repair was completed by September 5, 2005, and subsequently, the three canals were repaired all the way to Lake Pontchartrain. The Army Corps of Engineers added flood gates to the three canals. Many evacuees were trapped in flooded houses and rooftops waiting to be rescued. The Superdome sustained significant damage and much of the dome's waterproof membrane had essentially been peeled off. On August 30, Louisiana governor Kathleen Blanco ordered the complete evacuation of the remaining people that sought shelter in the Superdome.[74] Blanco instructed the Adjutant General of the Louisiana National Guard, Major General Bennett C. Landreneau to contact Honoré of Northern Command (Honoré arrived on Wednesday, August 31, as the commander of the newly established Joint Task Force Katrina to supervise federal military operations) to arrange for active duty military support of response operations in Louisiana. Additionally, General Landreneau instructed Louisiana National Guard officials at the Superdome to cease planning for the evacuation as Honoré would be "taking charge" of the evacuation project. The evacuees were then transported to the Astrodome in Houston, Texas. The only route out of the city was west on the Crescent City Connection as the I-10 (twin span) bridge traveling east towards Slidell, Louisiana had collapsed. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway was also carrying emergency traffic only.
Rest of Louisiana
On August 29, 2005, at 14:45 UTC, Hurricane Katrina made its final landfall near the mouth of the Pearl River. The western eye wall passed directly over St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana as a Category 3 hurricane.[75] The storm surge extended over six miles inland, impacting numerous communities, including Slidell, Avery Estates, Lakeshore Estates, Oak Harbor, Eden Isles, and North Shore Beach. The surge affected the entire 57 miles of the parish's coastline[76] and caused significant damage, with a height of 12 feet (3.7m) being recorded in Grand Isle. The hurricane-force winds caused widespread destruction, toppling trees and telephone poles throughout the parish. The Twin Spans of I-10 between Slidell and New Orleans East were virtually destroyed, and much of I-10 in New Orleans East was underwater. The Lake Pontchartrain Causeway and the Highway 11 bridge, connecting the north and south shores of Lake Pontchartrain, were open only to emergency traffic.
Initial search and rescue operations were conducted south of Highway 190 from Lacombe east to the state line,[77] with over 3,000 people evacuated from flooded homes and about 300 people rescued.[78] During the rescue period, radio communications for first responders were working, but the 9-1-1 system was down for ten days.[79] Utility services were unavailable in the parish. However, hospitals and a special needs shelter had generator power, and the hospitals were operating at full capacity.
In the aftermath, 48,792 housing units were damaged by floodwaters and high winds.[80] The recovery efforts, including over 6.6million cubic yards collected[81] and restoration of essential services, continued for at least through 2009 following the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina.
The breach on the east side of the 17th Street Canal levee did not cause severe flooding within Jefferson Parish, but some lower-lying areas did receive significant water damage, especially on the East Bank.
The Sheriff of Jefferson Parish reported that he expected his district to remain uninhabitable for at least one week and that residents should not return to the area. Incidents of looting were reported throughout affected areas of Louisiana, most notably in New Orleans. Louisiana governor Kathleen Blanco ordered all roadways into the state closed.
By one week after the storm, residents were allowed to return to their homes to retrieve essentials, provided that they could present identification proving that they lived in the parish. They were only allowed in to retrieve essential items, and were then required to leave the parish for another month.
In Terrebonne Parish, signs, trees, roofs and utility poles suffered the brunt of Hurricane Katrina's fury when the storm roared across Terrebonne and Lafourche. Most of Terrebonne Parish and Lafourche Parish were covered with water during the storm surge, yet Houma was spared to the extent that the Coast Guard used their airport for the initial rescue launch site.[71]
Hurricane Katrina made a direct landfall in the "lower" (southern/down river) portion of Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, the eye passed directly over the town of Empire, Louisiana. There was extensive flooding the majority of the Parish, and the southern part was temporarily "reclaimed" by the Mississippi River. All of the East Bank of the Parish was flooded, as was the downriver portion of the West Bank. Belle Chase mostly escaped with only moderate wind damage. The Belle Chasse Tunnel was flooded as well.
On August 29, the President of Plaquemines Parish, Benny Rousselle, issued a statement to all residents not to return to the parish until further notice. There were no public services available and all roads were closed and impassable. He requested that only employees in Drainage, Heavy Equipment, Public Right-of-Way Maintenance and Solid Waste departments return to the parish if possible.
St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, which lies to the East of New Orleans and thus was closer to the path of the storm and the more exposed to the storm surge from the Gulf of Mexico, was completely flooded via water surging into Lake Borgne. A large portion of the flooding was apparently the result of levee failures along the Mississippi River – Gulf Outlet Canal, a 76 miles (122km) canal. The levees were sized to hold back up to 17.5 feet (5.3m), of water; they held back the initial surge, but then they were breached in several areas by the 22 feet (6.7m), surge.
The Parish's two shelters at Chalmette High School and St. Bernard High School suffered considerable damage with flooding. Chalmette High lost much of its roof, and St. Bernard High had many broken windows. There were estimates of 300-plus evacuees at both sites.
By August 29, about 150people were sighted on rooftops in areas that were under approximately 8–10feet or more of water. Among those on the roofs were WDSU reporter Heath Allen and a St. Bernard resident on a government complex rooftop. Residents reported that even oil platform service boats were used to rescue survivors.
Several tragic deaths were reported at St. Rita's Nursing Home in the parish, as 35people died due to drowning. The owners of the nursing home were arrested and charged with negligent homicide for not having evacuated in advance of the storm. However, the owners were subsequently found not guilty.[82]
Washington Parish received significant damage due to wind damage and local flooding. The Parish is home to many pine forests in which many of the pine trees snapped or were completely uprooted. The eye of Katrina could be seen from the eastern part of the parish, in Bogalusa as Bogalusa was only fifteen miles away from the center of the eye. Much of Bogalusa was without power for weeks. Many major roads were covered by trees and were not cleared for many days. Schools did not reopen until October. As gasoline was in short supply even for emergency workers, the parish banned gas sales to the public for several days, arousing the ire of many locals.
Other states
As part of a broader tornado outbreak, Katrina spawned 18tornadoes in Georgia, including an F2 twister that killed a man in Roopville, along with about a million chickens after destroying 17poultry barns. This marked the first tornado fatality in Georgia in the month of August on record.[83][84] The tornadoes also resulted in six injuries, with damage estimated at $12.8million. Rainfall in the state reached 5.05in (128mm), enough to cause street flooding. Gusty winds caused isolated tree and power line damage across northwestern Georgia.[85][86] Heavier rainfall occurred in North Carolina, reaching 7.19in (183mm) at Mount Mitchell.[86] Rains in the state caused creeks and rivers to flood, while gusty winds knocked down trees, including at least two that fell houses.[87][88]
Moving into Tennessee as a tropical storm, Katrina still had winds strong enough to knock down trees and power lines. About 100,000people in the state lost power. In Covington, the winds destroyed a porch and some windows, while in Bartlett a tree fell onto a house.[89] Heavy rainfall occurred as far north as Kentucky, reaching 7.94in (202mm) in Finney.[90] The rains added to rains that affected the state earlier, producing flooding that killed a girl in Hopkinsville. Floods in the city affected 180buildings, forcing residents to evacuate, including several people rescued from their cars. Floodwaters closed at least 40roads, which closed all schools in Christian County. Two schools sustained water damage.[91] Hopkinsville also recorded a gust of 44mph (71km/h). The combination of the rains and winds knocked down trees and power lines, leaving about 10,000people statewide without power. In Calloway County, 32roads were blocked by fallen trees.[92] Governor Ernie Fletcher, declared Christian, Todd, and Trigg counties disaster areas due to flooding, and declared a statewide state of emergency.[citation needed]
Aftermath
Disaster areas map: dark orange indicates full Individual and Public Assistance, orange for Individual and Public Assistance (Categories A and B), yellow for full Public Assistance, and green for Public Assistance (Category B).
On August28, or about three days after Katrina struck Florida, President George W. Bush declared a disaster area for Miami-Dade and Broward counties, which allocated federal funding for debris removal and other emergency services.[93] Three days later, Monroe County was also declared a disaster area, and on the same day the three counties were designated to receive funding for public assistance; this included aid to repair roads and bridges, water control facilities, public buildings, and recreation areas. The declaration was determined after the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) sent 20State Emergency Response Teams to determine the extent of damage.[94] After Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast, President Bush declared a disaster area for seven counties along the Florida panhandle on September6; the counties were Bay, Escambia, Franklin, Gulf, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, and Walton. In addition, Collier County in southwestern Florida was added to the list of disaster areas.[95]
In the two months after Katrina struck south Florida, Hurricane Rita brushed the region in late September with tropical storm-force winds and flooding rains.[96] In late October, Hurricane Wilma struck southwestern Florida as a major hurricane, affecting the Miami area with hurricane-force winds that left 98% of south Florida without power.[97] Including Hurricane Dennis in July, FEMA provided $1billion in public assistance to Florida residents in association with the four hurricanes in 2005.[98]
As a result of the flooding in Mobile, Alabama, a curfew from dusk to dawn was implemented.[99] Around a week after Katrina hit Alabama, FEMA approved $5.2million into disaster aid to over 3,000 households in Alabama. Almost 550 truckloads with of supplies also arrived in Alabama from logistical centers across the southeast.[100]
Rebuilding of towns took years, and some areas were not restored. The bay bridges were rebuilt taller and stronger, as had been done around Pensacola in the years following Hurricane Ivan (2004). Because all 3 Emergency Command Centers in the Mississippi coastal counties had been flooded over 30 feet (9.1m) above sea level,[3] the rules for command-center elevation were changed to relocate to even higher ground. The casino-gambling regulations were changed to allow casinos to be built on land in taller buildings, no longer forcing the use of massive floating casino barges near a city, which could again become battering rams along 2nd and 3rd-story levels of nearby hotels.[citation needed] Many local Gulf Coast water systems were destroyed in the storm. The state government opted to have them reconstructed as a handful of regional water systems and one large regional sewage system.[101]
Celebrities who had previously visited New Orleans came to understand the massive devastation that occurred along the Gulf Coast cities. The US Army Corps of Engineers developed plans to rebuild the protective barrier islands that had been washed out to sea along the coastal areas. Detailed reports were written describing how people had survived by swimming to taller buildings or trees, and noting that those too old or unable to swim did not survive. Many residents moved away and never returned. Medical studies attempted to estimate the indirect deaths caused by people losing their homes or local medical support.
Both the Mississippi residents who survived the hurricanes as well as the disaster relief workers who supported them are at high risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a mental health disorder that can develop after exposure to an extreme situation such as warfare, a natural disaster or abuse.[102]
Related Research Articles
Hurricane Camille was a powerful, deadly and destructive Category 5 Atlantic hurricane which became the second most intense tropical cyclone on record to strike the United States and is one of just four Category 5 hurricanes to make landfall in the U.S.
Hurricane Ivan was a large, long-lived, and devastating Cape Verde hurricane that caused widespread damage in the Caribbean and United States. The cyclone was the ninth named storm, the sixth hurricane and the fourth major hurricane of the active 2004 Atlantic hurricane season.
Hurricane Katrina was a powerful and devastating tropical cyclone that caused 1,392 fatalities and damages estimated at $125 billion in late August 2005, particularly in the city of New Orleans and its surrounding area. It is tied with Hurricane Harvey as being the costliest tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin. Katrina was the twelfth tropical cyclone, the fifth hurricane, and the third major hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. It was also the fourth-most intense Atlantic hurricane to make landfall in the contiguous United States, gauged by barometric pressure.
Hurricane preparedness in New Orleans has been an issue since the city's early settlement because of its location.
This article contains a historical timeline of the events of Hurricane Katrina on August 23–30, 2005 and its aftermath.
Hurricane Katrina struck the United States on August 29, 2005, causing over a thousand deaths and extreme property damage, particularly in New Orleans. The incident affected numerous areas of governance, including disaster preparedness and environmental policy.
Hurricane Rita was the most intense tropical cyclone on record in the Gulf of Mexico and the fourth-most intense Atlantic hurricane ever recorded. Part of the record-breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season, which included three of the top ten most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of barometric pressure ever recorded, Rita was the seventeenth named storm, tenth hurricane, and fifth major hurricane of the 2005 season. It was also the earliest-forming 17th named storm in the Atlantic until Tropical Storm Rene in 2020. Rita formed near The Bahamas from a tropical wave on September 18, 2005 that originally developed off the coast of West Africa. It moved westward, and after passing through the Florida Straits, Rita entered an environment of abnormally warm waters. Moving west-northwest, it rapidly intensified to reach peak winds of 180 mph (285 km/h), achieving Category 5 status on September 21. However, it weakened to a Category 3 hurricane before making landfall in Johnson's Bayou, Louisiana, between Sabine Pass, Texas and Holly Beach, Louisiana, with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). Rapidly weakening over land, Rita degenerated into a large low-pressure area over the lower Mississippi Valley by September 26.
Hurricane Juan was a large and erratic tropical cyclone that looped twice near the Louisiana coast, causing widespread flooding. It was the tenth named storm of the 1985 Atlantic hurricane season, forming in the central Gulf of Mexico in late October. Juan moved northward after its formation, and was subtropical in nature with its large size. On October 27, the storm became a hurricane, reaching maximum sustained winds of 85 mph (140 km/h). Due to the influence of an upper-level low, Juan looped just off southern Louisiana before making landfall near Morgan City on October 29. Weakening to tropical storm status over land, Juan turned back to the southeast over open waters, crossing the Mississippi River Delta. After turning to the northeast, the storm made its final landfall just west of Pensacola, Florida, late on October 31. Juan continued quickly to the north and was absorbed by an approaching cold front, although its moisture contributed to a deadly flood event in the Mid-Atlantic states.
Hurricane Bob was the first Atlantic tropical cyclone to be officially designated using a masculine name after the discontinuation of Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet names. Bob brought moderate damage to portions of the United States Gulf Coast and areas farther inland in July 1979. The storm was the first hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico to form in the month of July since 1959, and was the fifth tropical cyclone to form during the annual hurricane season. Though the origin of Bob can be traced back to a tropical wave near the western coast of Africa in late June, Bob formed from a tropical depression in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on July 9. Tracking in a general northward direction, favorable conditions allowed for quick strengthening. Less than a day after formation, the system reached tropical storm intensity, followed by hurricane intensity on July 11. Shortly after strengthening into a hurricane, Bob reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph (121 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 986 mbar. At the same intensity, Bob made landfall west of Grand Isle, Louisiana, and rapidly weakened after moving inland. However, the resulting tropical depression persisted for several days as it paralleled the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. On July 16, the system emerged into the western Atlantic, where it was subsequently absorbed by a nearby low-pressure area.
Tropical Storm Bill was a tropical storm that affected the Gulf Coast of the United States in the summer of 2003. The second storm of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season, Bill developed from a tropical wave on June 29 to the north of the Yucatán Peninsula. It slowly organized as it moved northward, and reached a peak of 60 miles per hour (97 km/h) shortly before making landfall in south-central Louisiana. Bill quickly weakened over land, and as it accelerated to the northeast, moisture from the storm, combined with cold air from an approaching cold front, produced an outbreak of 34 tornadoes. Bill became extratropical on July 2, and was absorbed by the cold front later that day.
Hurricane Florence was the third of four named tropical cyclones to make landfall on the United States during the 1988 Atlantic hurricane season. The seventh tropical storm and second hurricane of the season, Florence developed on September 7 from an area of convection associated with a dissipating frontal trough in the southern Gulf of Mexico. After initially moving eastward, the storm turned northward and strengthened. Florence reached hurricane status and later peak winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) on September 9 shortly before striking southeastern Louisiana. The storm rapidly weakened over land and dissipated on September 11 over northeastern Texas.
Tropical Depression Ten was a short-lived tropical cyclone that made landfall on the Florida Panhandle in September 2007. The system developed as a subtropical depression on September 21 in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico from the interaction of a tropical wave, the tail end of a cold front, and an upper-level low. Initially containing a poorly defined circulation and intermittent thunderstorm activity, the system transitioned into a tropical depression after convection increased over the center. Tracking northwestward, the depression moved ashore near Fort Walton Beach early on September 22 and dissipated over southeastern Alabama shortly thereafter.
Tropical Storm Edouard brought coastal and minor inland flooding to Louisiana and Texas in August 2008. The fifth tropical cyclone and fifth named storm of the hurricane season, Edouard developed from a trough in the northern Gulf of Mexico on August 3. After developing into a tropical depression, it gradually strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Edouard on August 4. However, northerly wind shear initially halted any further significant intensification and also caused the storm to struggle to maintain deep convection over the center. Edouard eventually intensified further and peaked as a strong tropical storm with winds of 65 mph (100 km/h) on August 5. Shortly thereafter, the storm made landfall near Gilchrist, Texas later that day. Edouard quickly weakened and was downgraded to tropical depression by early on August 6, six hours before degenerated into a remnant low pressure area.
Hurricane Gustav was the second most destructive hurricane of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season. The seventh tropical cyclone, third hurricane, and second major hurricane of the season, Gustav caused serious damage and casualties in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, the Cayman Islands, Cuba and the United States. Gustav caused at least $8.31 billion (2008 USD) in damages.
The effects of Hurricane Georges in Louisiana included $30.1 million in damage and three deaths. Forming from a tropical wave over the Atlantic Ocean, Georges attained a peak intensity of 155 mph (249 km/h) on September 20, 1998. Over the following several days, the storm tracked through the Greater Antilles and later entered the Gulf of Mexico on September 28, the Category 2 storm made landfall in Mississippi before dissipating on October 1. Before landfall, about 500,000 residents in Louisiana evacuated from low-lying areas. The mayor of New Orleans declared a state of emergency to allow federal assistance into the state. After nearly 1.5 million people were urged to evacuate coastal areas, officials described the evacuation as "probably the largest [...] we have ever achieved".
Hurricane Andrew was a tropical cyclone that struck the Bahamas, Florida, and Louisiana in August 1992. It is the most destructive hurricane to ever hit Florida in terms of structures damaged or destroyed, and remained the costliest in financial terms until Hurricane Irma surpassed it 25 years later. Andrew was also the strongest landfalling hurricane in the United States in decades and the costliest hurricane to strike anywhere in the country, until it was surpassed by Katrina in 2005.
Hurricane Isaac was a deadly and destructive tropical cyclone that came ashore in the U.S. state of Louisiana during August 2012. The ninth named storm and fourth hurricane of the annual hurricane season, Isaac originated from a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 16. Tracking generally west, a broad area of low pressure developed along the wave axis the next day, and the disturbance developed into a tropical depression early on August 21 while several hundred miles east of the Lesser Antilles. The system intensified into a tropical storm shortly thereafter, but high wind shear initially prevented much change in strength.
Hurricane Barry was an asymmetrical tropical cyclone that was the wettest on record in Arkansas and the fourth-wettest in Louisiana. The second tropical or subtropical storm and first hurricane of the 2019 Atlantic hurricane season, Barry originated as a mesoscale convective vortex over southwestern Kansas on July 2. The system eventually emerged into the Gulf of Mexico from the Florida Panhandle on July 10, whereupon the National Hurricane Center (NHC) designated it as a potential tropical cyclone. Early on July 11, the system developed into a tropical depression, and strengthened into a tropical storm later that day. Dry air and wind shear caused most of the convection, or thunderstorms, to be displaced south of the center. Nevertheless, Barry gradually intensified. On July 13, Barry attained its peak intensity as Category 1 hurricane with 1-minute sustained winds of 75 mph (120 km/h) and a minimum central pressure of 993 millibars (29.3 inHg). At 15:00 UTC, Barry made its first landfall at Marsh Island, and another landfall in Intracoastal City, Louisiana, both times as a Category 1 hurricane. Barry quickly weakened after landfall, falling to tropical depression status on July 15. The storm finally degenerated into a remnant low over northern Arkansas on the same day, subsequently opening up into a trough on July 16. The storm's remnants persisted for another few days, while continuing its eastward motion, before being absorbed into another frontal storm to the south of Nova Scotia on July 19.
Hurricane Sally was a destructive and slow-moving tropical cyclone that was the first hurricane to make landfall in the U.S. state of Alabama since Ivan in 2004, coincidentally on the same date in the same place. The eighteenth named storm and seventh hurricane of the extremely active 2020 Atlantic hurricane season, Sally developed from an area of disturbed weather which was first monitored over the Bahamas on September 10. The system grew a broad area of low-pressure on September 11, and was designated as a tropical depression late that day. Early the next day, the depression made landfall at Key Biscayne and subsequently strengthened into Tropical Storm Sally that afternoon. Moderate northwesterly shear prevented significant intensification for the first two days, but convection continued to grow towards the center and Sally slowly intensified. On September 14, a center reformation into the center of the convection occurred, and data from a hurricane hunter reconnaissance aircraft showed that Sally had rapidly intensified into a strong Category 1 hurricane. However, an increase in wind shear and upwelling of colder waters halted the intensification and Sally weakened slightly on September 15 before turning slowly northeastward. Despite this increase in wind shear, it unexpectedly re-intensified, reaching Category 2 status early on September 16 before making landfall at peak intensity at 09:45 UTC on September 16, near Gulf Shores, Alabama, with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph (180 km/h) and a minimum central pressure of 965 millibars (28.5 inHg). The storm rapidly weakened after landfall before transitioning into an extratropical low at 12:00 UTC the next day. Sally's remnants lasted for another day as they moved off the coast of the Southeastern United States before being absorbed into another extratropical storm on September 18.
References
1 2 3 Gary Tuchman, Transcript of "Anderson Cooper 361 Degrees" (August 29, 2006) 19:00 ET, CNN, CNN.com, web: CNN-ACooper082906: GARY TUCHMAN, CNN Correspondent: Responds to Anderson Cooper that it felt like it would never end, saying winds were at least 100 miles per hour in Gulfport for seven hours, between about 7:00 a.m. and 2:01 p.m. For another five or six hours, on each side of that, they [Gulfport] had hurricane-force winds over 75 miles per hour; much of the city [Gulfport, Mississippi, in Harrison County] of 71,000 was then under water.
1 2 3 US Department of Commerce, "Service Assessment: Hurricane Katrina August 23–31, 2005" (June 2006), pp. 10/16, NOAA’s National Weather Service, Silver Spring, MD, web: NWS-Katrina-PDFArchived July 23, 2006, at the Wayback Machine : page 7 (storm surge 26–28 ft), p. 50: "Appendix C: Tornado Reports Associated with Hurricane Katrina" (62 tornadoes).
↑ As flood waters rose, many streets became swamped and impassable. Emergency crews rescued over 100 people, from rooftops or trees, in Mississippi.
↑ "FEMA-1604-DR Mississippi Disaster Declaration as of October 27, 2005" (map), FEMA, ITS Mapping and Analysis Center, Washington, DC, 2005-10-27, webpage: FEMA-1604-pdfArchived September 23, 2005, at the Wayback Machine .
1 2 "Information Relating to the Federal Appropriations for Katrina Recovery" (January 6, 2006), Office of the Governor, Mississippi, webpage: "Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour" GBarbour-Rec"Information". Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved August 29, 2006..
↑ "SIX MONTHS AFTER KATRINA: AN OVERVIEW" (short summary), Office of the House Democratic Leader Nancy Pelosi, February 28, 2006, file: HouseGov-Katrina6.
↑ "Louisiana Citizen Awareness and Disaster Evacuation Guide" by the Louisiana Homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness LinkArchived July 14, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
↑ Rob Marciano (CNN Meteorologist), Transcript of "Anderson Cooper 360 Degrees" (August 29, 2006) 19:00 ET, CNN, CNN.com web: CNN-ACooper082906: "ROB MARCIANO, CNN Meteorologist: Responds to Anderson Cooper that the governor preferred that folks did not go out on the streets because the "streets are literally littered with kitchen appliances."
↑ The town of Pass Christian recruited volunteers to help rebuild and clean up the city through its website "Rebuild the Pass". Archived from the original on September 9, 2009.
↑ St. Tammany Parish Emergency Operations Center Parish Status Update, Thursday, September 8, 2005, 5:00pm; Retrieved September 11, 2009
↑ "Archived copy"(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on March 5, 2012. Retrieved July 29, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)"Current Housing Unit Damage Estimates, Hurricanes Katrina, Rita and Wilma", February 12, 2006, Analysis by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development's Office of Policy Development and Research
↑ "Archived copy"(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on July 24, 2008. Retrieved September 14, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)"State of the Parish" Speech, October 27, 2005, St. Tammany Parish President Kevin Davis; retrieved September 11, 2009
↑ Richard Knabb; Daniel Brown; Jamie Rhome (March 17, 2006). Hurricane Rita Tropical Cyclone Report(PDF) (Report). National Hurricane Center. Retrieved April 11, 2012.
↑ Richard Pasch; Eric Blake; Hugh Cobb III; David Roberts (January 12, 2006). Hurricane Wilma Tropical Cyclone Report(PDF) (Report). National Hurricane Center. Retrieved April 11, 2012.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
