Ethical eating

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Ethical eating or food ethics refers to the moral consequences [1] [2] of food choices, both those made by humans and animals. Common concerns are damage to the environment, [3] exploitive labor practices, food shortages for others, inhumane treatment of food animals, and the unintended effects of food policy. [4] Ethical eating is a type of ethical consumerism.

Contents

Concerns

Environmental

Cattle grazing in Texas Cattle grazing Ochiltree County, TX IMG 6050.JPG
Cattle grazing in Texas

The extent of environmental impacts depends on the methods of food production and types of food. The Union of Concerned Scientists advises that avoiding eating beef may potentially help the environment, [5] because of the large amounts of water needed to produce beef, the pollution from fecal, ammonia, carbon dioxide and methane waste associated with raising cows, the physical damage from grazing, and the destruction of wildlife habitat and rainforests to produce land for grazing. [5] Industrially produced meat, such as that from animals raised in concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), has "the greatest impact of any food product on the environment". [3] Livestock production takes up the majority of agricultural land use, which ultimately results in the increase of methane and nitrous oxide emissions. These two gases are known for being harmful and damaging to the environment. It also takes 7 kilograms of grain to produce 1 kilogram of beef, and the process to convert this requires even more energy and water usage. [6] This poses another ethical dilemma, which is choosing to feed the cattle over people in poverty. The latter is what brings in the most revenue, so that is where the attention and resources go towards.

Packaging of commercially produced foods is also an area of concern, [3] because of the environmental impact of both the production of the packaging and the disposal of the packaging.

Transportation of commercially produced goods can influence the environmental impact of the food products. [3]

Labor practices

Within the food system there are many low-paid occupations. Many farm workers are paid below-minimum wages [7] or work in substandard conditions, especially farm workers in developing countries and migrant workers in industrialized nations. Through the H-2A guest worker program, farms are able to hire for seasonal work or sometimes grant visas to workers. Due to the cost of this program, the administration of the program has been delayed. Year-round food and farm industries have become reliant on undocumented labor because they are unable to use the H-2 guest worker program. More recently, the topic of concern has been over labor shortages. The solution is investing into automation; new technologies have developed to the point where robots can now perform the tasks of an employee. Jobs within food processing [8] catering [9] and food retailing [10] are also often poorly paid and sometimes hazardous. The conditions in the fields require repetition of the same movements-with little to no breaks, and the workers are oftentimes exposed to toxic chemicals used on the crops. Factory farms are just as dangerous, as workers inhale gas from manure pits. The hydrogen sulfide in the manure has been known to cause bronchitis in the lungs, among other threatening health conditions. Although meat packing plant workers receive better pay, they risk their well-being on the job. The work is presented like an assembly line, and the employees each have to go through the same motions at a fast pace. Many employees have been sent to the hospital from incidents related to the knives and machinery they use. [11]

Distribution of wealth

Since the 1980s, policies promoting global free trade have increased the amount of food exported from poorer countries, which may adversely affect the food available for their own populations. [12] Campaign to reduce levels of food imports, however, may reduce the incomes of farmers in poorer countries, who rely on export sales. [13]

Food availability

Since the 1970s, the food system has become increasingly global and a small number of multi-national corporations now dominate trade in many food products. [14] One result is that the proportion of industrially processed foods in diets is increasing globally. [15]

Animal welfare

The welfare of animals who are farmed for food is considered a major source of concern, especially when they are farmed intensively, which can lead to negative welfare outcomes.

Specific food choices

Take a Bite Out Of Climate Change flashcards Climate food flashcards main nov19 v2 8up.pdf
Take a Bite Out Of Climate Change flashcards

Meat

Free-range pigs grazing at Polyface Farm, which promotes 'more sustainable' methods of animal husbandry Pigs at Polyface Farm.jpg
Free-range pigs grazing at Polyface Farm, which promotes 'more sustainable' methods of animal husbandry

Some ethicists argue that the keeping and killing of animals for human consumption is in itself unethical. [16] [17] Others point out that animal husbandry is "essential to sustainable farms, which don't rely on fossil fuels and chemicals," rather using animal waste as fertilizer and animal activity as weed and pest control and using animals to "convert vegetation that's inedible to humans, and growing on marginal, uncultivated land, into food." [1] [18]

The method in which food animals are raised and the type of food animal affect the ethics of eating that animal. Farm-raising is a method of raising food animals with lesser environmental impacts. [19]

Dairy and eggs

Dairy and egg production have ethical consequences, in particular in large-scale industrialized production. Chickens and milk-animals raised in industrial operations are often treated less fairly for commercial purposes.

Male chicks serve no use in the egg industry because they can't lay eggs or be used for meat production. Shortly after hatching they are separated and placed onto a conveyor belt to be killed. Sick and weak female chicks are also inspected and grouped together with the males to be terminated. The two ways of doing this involve either being thrown into a grinder or being gassed to death. The healthy females are transported to another facility where they grow until they are able to lay eggs. Once those chickens are unable to produce more eggs, they are then killed. This usually happens around 18 months, which is premature for their typical lifespan. [20] This is due to the unnatural conditions for the chickens, such as confinement in battery cages, surgical beak procedures, forced molting, and genetic mutations that lead to health complications. [21]

Small-scale production of eggs, such as by backyard chicken raisers and small diversified farms raising pastured birds or milk-animals, are less ethically fraught but still create some issues for ethicists.

Seafood

Industrial fishing has broad effects with ethical consequences. An example is nutrient and chemical pollution. The seafood industry has also been criticized due to issues with forced labor. Much of the seafood in the United States is imported from overseas, which means that certain regulations are out of jurisdiction and no longer apply. The standards aren't as high in other countries, which has led to problems with extortion. For example, Thailand has been known to participate in illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing. Ships and vessels depend on third parties for recruitment, meaning U.S. companies that get seafood from international locations are unable to keep track of supply chains. It's common for these third party agencies to hire migrants, who are easier to take advantage because of their vulnerability. Human trafficking has been another issue in some regions. [22]

Crops

Some foods produced in developing countries are exported in quantities that threaten the ability of local residents to affordably obtain their traditional foods. Western demand for quinoa, a traditional food in Bolivia Peru and Ecuador, has become so high that producers are eating significantly less of the grain, preferring to sell it for import instead and sparking concerns about malnutrition. [23]

Criticism

Some critics of the food ethics movement argue that parsing the various concerns is futile. [1]

Fairtrade International, the certifying body for Fair Trade products, has been accused of "misleading consumers about its ability to monitor production practices" [7] and giving Fairtrade certification to at least one coffee association despite the fact they were "illegally growing some 20 per cent of its coffee in protected national forest land." [7]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meat</span> Animal flesh eaten as food

Meat is animal tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of animals, including chickens, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and cattle, starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal husbandry</span> Management of farm animals

Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, management, production, nutrition, selective breeding, and the raising of livestock. Husbandry has a long history, starting with the Neolithic Revolution when animals were first domesticated, from around 13,000 BC onwards, predating farming of the first crops. By the time of early civilisations such as ancient Egypt, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were being raised on farms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cultured meat</span> Meat created outside of a living animal

Cultured meat, also known as cultivated meat among other names, is a form of cellular agriculture where meat is produced by culturing animal cells in vitro. Cultured meat is produced using tissue engineering techniques pioneered in regenerative medicine. Jason Matheny popularized the concept in the early 2000s after he co-authored a paper on cultured meat production and created New Harvest, the world's first non-profit organization dedicated to in-vitro meat research. Cultured meat has the potential to mitigate the environmental impact of meat production and address issues regarding animal welfare, food security and human health.

There are different systems of feeding cattle in animal husbandry. For pastured animals, grass is usually the forage that composes the majority of their diet. In turn, this grass-fed approach is known for producing meat with distinct flavor profiles. Cattle reared in feedlots are fed hay supplemented with grain, soy and other ingredients to increase the energy density of the feed. The debate is whether cattle should be raised on fodder primarily composed of grass or a concentrate. The issue is complicated by the political interests and confusion between labels such as "free range", "organic", or "natural". Cattle raised on a primarily foraged diet are termed grass-fed or pasture-raised; for example meat or milk may be called grass-fed beef or pasture-raised dairy. The term "pasture-raised" can lead to confusion with the term "free range", which does not describe exactly what the animals eat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tyson Foods</span> American food company

Tyson Foods, Inc. is an American multinational corporation based in Springdale, Arkansas that operates in the food industry. The company is the world's second-largest processor and marketer of chicken, beef, and pork after JBS S.A. It annually exports the largest percentage of beef out of the United States. Together with its subsidiaries, it operates major food brands, including Jimmy Dean, Hillshire Farm, Ball Park, Wright Brand, Aidells, and State Fair. Tyson Foods ranked No. 79 in the 2020 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethics of eating meat</span> Food ethics topic

Conversations regarding the ethics of eating meat are focused on whether or not it is moral to eat non-human animals. Ultimately, this is a debate that has been ongoing for millennia, and it remains one of the most prominent topics in food ethics. Individuals who promote meat consumption do so for a number of reasons, such as health, cultural traditions, religious beliefs, and scientific arguments that support the practice. Those who support meat consumption typically argue that making a meat-free diet mandatory would be wrong because it fails to consider the individual nutritional needs of humans at various stages of life, fails to account for biological differences between the sexes, ignores the reality of human evolution, ignores various cultural considerations, or because it would limit the adaptability of the human species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental vegetarianism</span> Type of practice of vegetarianism

Environmental vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism that is motivated by the desire to create a sustainable diet, which avoids the negative environmental impact of meat production. Livestock as a whole is estimated to be responsible for around 15% of global greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, significant reduction in meat consumption has been advocated by, among others, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their 2019 special report and as part of the 2017 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal product</span> Food product derived from non-human animal body

An animal product is any material derived from the body of a non-human animal. Examples are fat, flesh, blood, milk, eggs, and lesser known products, such as isinglass and rennet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intensive animal farming</span> Branch of agriculture

Intensive animal farming, industrial livestock production, and macro-farms, also known as factory farming, is a type of intensive agriculture, specifically an approach to animal husbandry designed to maximize production while minimizing costs. To achieve this, agribusinesses keep livestock such as cattle, poultry, and fish at high stocking densities, at large scale, and using modern machinery, biotechnology, and global trade. The main products of this industry are meat, milk and eggs for human consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poultry farming</span> Part of animal husbandry

Poultry farming is the form of animal husbandry which raises domesticated birds such as chickens, ducks, turkeys and geese to produce meat or eggs for food. Poultry – mostly chickens – are farmed in great numbers. More than 60 billion chickens are killed for consumption annually. Chickens raised for eggs are known as layers, while chickens raised for meat are called broilers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poultry farming in the United States</span>

Poultry farming is a part of the United States's agricultural economy.

Urban keeping of chickens as pets, for eggs, meat, or for eating pests is popular in urban and suburban areas. Some people sell the eggs for side income.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Assured Food Standards</span> Owner of the Red Tractor quality mark in the United Kingdom

Assured Food Standards is a United Kingdom company which licenses the Red Tractor quality mark, a farm assurance programme for food products, animal feed and fertiliser. Multiple cases of animal abuse have been reported on Red Tractor assured farms.

Ethical omnivorism, omnivorismor compassionate carnivorism, is a human diet involving the consumption of meat, eggs, dairy and produce that can be traced back to an organic farm. Ocean fish consumption is limited to sustainably farm-raised and/or ethically and wild caught, without contributing to illegal poaching.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antibiotic use in livestock</span> Use of antibiotics for any purpose in the husbandry of livestock

Antibiotic use in livestock is the use of antibiotics for any purpose in the husbandry of livestock, which includes treatment when ill (therapeutic), treatment of a group of animals when at least one is diagnosed with clinical infection (metaphylaxis), and preventative treatment (prophylaxis). Antibiotics are an important tool to treat animal as well as human disease, safeguard animal health and welfare, and support food safety. However, used irresponsibly, this may lead to antibiotic resistance which may impact human, animal and environmental health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Huemer</span> American philosopher (born 1969)

Michael Huemer is a professor of philosophy at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He has defended ethical intuitionism, direct realism, libertarianism, phenomenal conservatism, substance dualism, reincarnation, the repugnant conclusion, and philosophical anarchism.

The psychology of eating meat is an area of study seeking to illuminate the confluence of morality, emotions, cognition, and personality characteristics in the phenomenon of the consumption of meat. Research into the psychological and cultural factors of meat-eating suggests correlations with masculinity, support for hierarchical values, and reduced openness to experience. Because meat eating is widely practiced but is sometimes associated with ambivalence, it has been used as a case study in moral psychology to illustrate theories of cognitive dissonance and moral disengagement. Research into the consumer psychology of meat is relevant to meat industry marketing, as well as for advocates of reduced meat consumption.

Cellular agriculture focuses on the production of agricultural products from cell cultures using a combination of biotechnology, tissue engineering, molecular biology, and synthetic biology to create and design new methods of producing proteins, fats, and tissues that would otherwise come from traditional agriculture. Most of the industry is focused on animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs, produced in cell culture rather than raising and slaughtering farmed livestock which is associated with substantial global problems of detrimental environmental impacts, animal welfare, food security and human health. Cellular agriculture is a field of the biobased economy. The most well known cellular agriculture concept is cultured meat.

Animal welfare and rights in Denmark relates to the treatment of and laws concerning non-human animals in Denmark. Denmark has moderately strong protections for animals by international standards. In 2014 and again in 2020, Denmark received a B grade on the A–G scale of the World Animal Protection's Animal Protection Index.

Farm Forward is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit whose mission is to promote conscientious eating, reduce farmed animal suffering, and advance sustainable agriculture. Farm Forward aims to eliminate the most harmful practices in intensive animal agriculture, increase the market share of humane and sustainable animal agriculture, and raise awareness about the cultural significance of animal agriculture.

References

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  19. Cox, Christopher (April 7, 2010). "It's Okay for Vegans to Eat Oysters". Slate. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
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  23. Collyns, Dan (January 14, 2013). "Quinoa brings riches to the Andes". The Guardian. Retrieved August 13, 2015.

Further reading