Gait deviations

Last updated
Abnormal gait
Other names Gait abnormality, 走路外八字 (Taiwanese Chinese), Penguin-like walking
Though not an amputee, this subject displays spatiotemporal step variability and slight rotation of the upper body and pelvis.
Specialty Orthopedics

PM&R

Neurology
Causes Normal pressure hydrocephalus, Hydrocephalus, Parkinson's disease, Spinocerebellar Atrophy, Spinocerebellar Ataxia

Gait deviations are nominally referred to as any variation of standard human gait, typically manifesting as a coping mechanism in response to an anatomical impairment. Lower-limb amputees are unable to maintain the characteristic walking patterns of an able-bodied individual due to the removal of some portion of the impaired leg. Without the anatomical structure and neuromechanical control of the removed leg segment, amputees must use alternative compensatory strategies to walk efficiently. Prosthetic limbs provide support to the user and more advanced models attempt to mimic the function of the missing anatomy, including biomechanically controlled ankle and knee joints. However, amputees still display quantifiable differences in many measures of ambulation when compared to able-bodied individuals. Several common observations are whole-body movements, slower and wider steps, shorter strides, and increased sway.

Contents

Presentation and causes

Patients with musculoskeletal pain, weakness or limited range of motion often present conditions such as Trendelenburg's sign, limping, myopathic gait and antalgic gait.[ citation needed ]

Patients who have peripheral neuropathy also experience numbness and tingling in their hands and feet. This can cause ambulation impairment, such as trouble climbing stairs or maintaining balance. Gait abnormality is also common in persons with nervous system problems such as cauda equina syndrome, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease (with characteristic Parkinsonian gait), Alzheimer's disease, vitamin B12 deficiency, myasthenia gravis, normal pressure hydrocephalus, and Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease. Research has shown that neurological gait abnormalities are associated with an increased risk of falls in older adults. [1]

Orthopedic corrective treatments may also manifest into gait abnormality, such as lower extremity amputation, healed fractures, and arthroplasty (joint replacement). Difficulty in ambulation that results from chemotherapy is generally temporary in nature, though recovery times of six months to a year are common. Likewise, difficulty in walking due to arthritis or joint pains (antalgic gait) sometimes resolves spontaneously once the pain is gone. [2] [3] Hemiplegic persons have circumduction gait, where the affected limb moves through an arc away from the body, and those with cerebral palsy often have scissoring gait.[ citation needed ]

Lower-limb amputations

Human leg bones labeled Human leg bones labeled.svg
Human leg bones labeled
An athlete with a single below-knee amputation using a running blade prosthetic Flickr - The U.S. Army - U.S. Army World Class Athlete Program Paralympic.jpg
An athlete with a single below-knee amputation using a running blade prosthetic

Over 185,000 amputations occur annually, with approximately 86% of incidents being lower-limb amputations. [4] The majority of cases are reportedly caused by vascular disease (54%) and trauma (45%). [5] Lower-limb amputees are further categorized by where the amputation occurs with respect to the knee joint. However, 34.5% of individuals with an initial foot or ankle amputation experience a progression of symptoms leading to subsequent amputations at higher levels of limb loss. [6] Out of these reamputation cases, diabetic patients had a higher likelihood of requiring further amputations, regardless of initial amputation location. [6] The rate of amputation has decreased significantly with the introduction and optimization of revascularization to combat vascular disease. [7] An increasingly studied trend in amputation rates is the gender disparity of women receiving more surgical revascularization treatments and less amputations than male counterparts. [8] [9]

Transtibial

An amputation between the knee and ankle joints transecting the tibia, or shinbone, is referred to as a transtibial amputation. In this situation, the patient may retain volitional control over the knee joint. The cause of amputation may dictate the length of the residual limb and the corresponding level of control of the prosthesis. The main impairment for transtibial amputees is the lack of adjustment of the foot and ankle. The foot acts as a lever arm directly attached to the calf muscle, but more than that, it absorbs the impulse from the ground and adapts dynamically to changes in the ground's surface. Transtibial amputees lose the muscle activation pathways necessary for the physical ability to generate work about the ankle joint, as well as the somatosensory and proprioceptive pathways of the lower leg. [10]

Transfemoral

Unlike transtibial amputations, transfemoral amputations occur between the hip and the knee joints, along the length the femur. Therefore, the patient's residual limb is controlled solely by the hip joint. Implementing a prosthetic leg requires the user to mechanically control the behaviors of the prosthetic knee and ankle joints through gross adjustments of the hip, rather than the finer and more precise movements of the missing joints. [11] Simple tasks such as walking on level ground, sit-to-stand transfers, and climbing stairs [12] require complex alternative muscle activation patterns [13] because the amputee cannot generate a moment about the prosthetic knee. [14] This poses a problem when knee flexion is required, especially during the transition from the stance phase to the swing phase. Transfemoral amputees, on average, have more variability in stride length and walking speed, more asymmetry in temporal measures between limbs, and have an overall slower walking speed than transtibial amputees. [15]

Compensatory Behaviors

A man with two prosthetic legs uses a hands-free harness walking gait training device during a therapy session US Navy 071015-N-5086M-202 Retired Marine Corps Cpl. Timothy Jeffers walks on his prosthetic legs while using the hands-free harness walking gait training device during a therapy session in the new Comprehensive Combat and Com.jpg
A man with two prosthetic legs uses a hands-free harness walking gait training device during a therapy session

Unimpaired human gait is characterized by its symmetry about the sagittal plane. In impaired individuals such as amputees, gait abnormalities are visible to the naked eye. Amputees often employ strategies known as protective gait behaviors to compensate for their impaired balance and control. These behaviors are most commonly categorized into increased general [body] and [torso] movement and increased variability of strides. The variability can manifest as a combination of differences in the length and width of the strides in comparison to the intact limb.

Bodily involvement

Before microprocessor-controlled prosthetic joints, the major findings were that the most noticeable movements could be seen in the shoulders, not the hips, and all subjects had uneven pelvic rotations, with more rotation on the prosthetic side. [16] On average, the pelvic inclination is highest in transfemoral amputees in static non-walking studies. [17] The integration of motion capture technology has been beneficial to more recent dynamic walking studies. Rotation of the pelvis is especially essential in transfemoral amputees for lifting the prosthesis and providing foot clearance. This behavior is colloquially known as 'hip-hiking'. As such, rotation and obliquity of the pelvis have been determined to be instrumental in producing more symmetric gait, even when the rotation itself is asymmetric between intact and impaired limbs. [18] Torso or trunk motion is also linked to amputee gait, specifically increasing upper-body ranges of motion with decreasing walking velocity. [19] Another study observed a coupling of torso and pelvis rotations. They noted that the 'hip-hiking' behavior made the rotations of the upper and lower body 'in' or 'out' of phase depending on the severity of the walking impairment, with the amputee subjects having a near-fully coupled bodily rotation. [20] Torso involvement is not as readily apparent in able-bodied individuals. It is hypothesized that this gait deviation could lead to lower back pain. [19] [21] [20] [22]

Stride length

Stride length refers to the distance in the direction of forward motion that is between heel strikes of successive footfalls or steps. During the gait cycle, amputees have characteristically shorter time spent in the stance phase on the prosthetic limb compared to the intact limb. [23] [24] [25] Stride length is arguably the most visible of the changes in amputee gait because it creates such an asymmetry between the intact and impaired limbs. However, the shorter stance time may help the amputee compensate for the greater margin of error of the prosthetic limb, and several sources suggest the shorter strides are beneficial towards maintaining a straight walking path. [25]

Step width

Step width refers to the distance between the feet. A connection exists between step width and gait instability, though it is difficult to discern the difference between correlation and causation. Increased step width is commonly accepted as an indicator of gait instability because it is a coping mechanism to deal with external or environmental balance perturbations. [26] [27] A similar widening of step width and concordant slowing of gait speed [28] has been observed between populations of elderly, [29] [30] obese, [31] [32] pregnant women, [33] [34] and amputees. [35] Physically widening the distance between feet in a standing posture increases the structural stability of the body by widening the base of support or foundation. [36] External lateral support mechanisms have been used to isolate the variable of balance in able-bodied subjects and succeeded in reducing both metabolic cost and step width. [37] A similar experimental setup was used on transtibial and transfemoral amputees: transtibial amputees had reduced energy cost and step width, but transfemoral subjects had increased cost and a more marginal reduction in step width, possibly due to the harness interfering with necessary pelvic movements. [38]

Gait Deviations

A man with a single prosthetic leg exercising on a treadmill Soldier with Prosthetic Limb at the Personnel Recovery Centre in Edinburgh MOD 45152290.jpg
A man with a single prosthetic leg exercising on a treadmill

The compensatory behaviors listed above describe the observable differences in ambulation between amputees and able-bodied individuals. The following gait deviation measurements quantify differences using gait analysis and other tests that typically necessitate specialized instrumentation or clinical environments.

Metabolic cost

Energy expenditure is commonly used as a measure of gait quality and efficiency. Human metabolic rates are usually recorded via measuring the maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) during controlled incremental exercise under observation. Treadmills are used for gait analysis and standard walking tests. Able-bodied and athletic individuals on average have smaller metabolic costs than impaired individuals performing identical tasks. [39] [40]

The values from a theoretical model [41] and experimental analyses [38] [42] [43] [44] [45] are listed below:

Another source [46] compiled a list of average metabolic cost increases categorized by amputation location and by cause of amputation:

Comfortable walking speed

Although heavily related to the metabolic cost and overall optimization of the gait, the self-selected walking speed of amputees is significantly lower than able-bodied individuals. [43] Average values for comfortable walking speeds drastically vary between subjects because it is a personal measure. The speeds can be lower than 0.60 m/s [51] or as high as 1.35 m/s. [40] In comparison, self-selected elderly walking speeds are commonly below 1.25 m/s, [29] [30] [52] and the reported comfortable walking speed of the able-bodied subjects is approximately 1.50 m/s. [53] [40]

Mechanical work

To compensate for the amputated segment of the limb, the residual joints are used for behaviors such as foot placement and general balance on the prosthetic limb. This increases the mechanical work generated by the residual joints on the amputated side. The intact limb is typically more adept at maintaining balance and is therefore relied upon more drastically, such as the behavior in a limping gait. Accordingly, the joint torques and general power of the intact side must increase as compared to an able-bodied individual. [49] [54] Even with the advanced computerized knee joint of Otto Bock's C-Leg transfemoral prosthesis, [55] the subjects experienced increased braking and propulsive impulses than that of the standard double inverted pendulum model of normal human gait. [40]

Other deviations

Similar to decreased stride length and increased step width, lateral sway is generally postulated to be an indication of gait instability. The gait naturally widens to account for a greater instability or external perturbations to balance. Step variability is also related to balance and lateral stability. The variability in length and width of steps can be attributed to a level of responsiveness to external factors and perturbations, or an indication of inherent instability and lack of control. [56] This has been a common discussion in analysis of elderly gait as well. [30] [29] Internal rotation is a culmination of measures of the hip and knee joints as well as the pelvic rotation and obliquity during gait. Typically, this has to be measured through motion capture and ground reaction force. Individual parameters can be calculated with inverse kinematics. [18]

Influential Factors

Prosthetic leg being fitted to young man Prosthetic leg being fitted to young man.jpg
Prosthetic leg being fitted to young man

Across the field of research, many studies are focused on assessing how different factors can influence the overall gait of amputee subjects. The following list shows examples of factors that are believed to influence the gait characteristics of lower-limb amputees:

Prosthetic weight and distribution

A common trend in modern technology is the push to create lightweight devices. A 1981 collection of studies on amputees showed a 30% increase in metabolic cost of walking for an able-bodied subject with 2-kg weights fixed to each foot. [57] Correspondingly, transfemoral prostheses are on average only about one third of the weight of the limb they are replacing. However, the effect of added mass appears to be less significant for amputees. Small increases in mass (4-oz and 8-oz) of a prosthetic foot had no significant effect [58] and, similarly, adding 0.68-kg and 1.34-kg masses to the center of the shank of transfemoral prostheses did not alter metabolic cost at any of the tested walking speeds (0.6, 1.0, and 1.5 m/s). [59] In another study, muscular efforts were significantly increased with added mass, yet there was no significant impact on walking speeds and over half of the subjects preferred a prosthetic that was loaded to match 75% weight of the sound leg. [60] In fact, it has been reported in several articles that test subjects actually prefer heavier prostheses, even when the load is completely superficial. [61]

Alignment and fit

Initial alignment of a prosthetic leg is conducted by a prosthetist or physician to ensure proper use of the limb. The length of the residual limb is related to the amount of asymmetry in the walking pattern, with longer stumps on average having greater control. [21] Misalignment of joints could result in postures similar to those seen in congenital malformations such as bow-leggedness, knock-knee, pigeon toe, and club foot. Misaligned sockets can simulate excessive hip and knee flexion and extension. As individuals get more experience on the limb, it is expected that they will optimize the alignment for their own preference.

Transtibial

In transtibial amputees, the adjustment of the foot is highly influential to gait changes. Proper alignment of the prosthetic foot about the ankle joint causes metabolic cost [48] and gait symmetry at the anatomical hip and knee joints to improve, with hip flexion-extension motion being the most sensitive to alignment. [62] Excessive rotational misalignment of the foot is compensated by internal rotation of the residual hip joint. [63] Proper alignment of the transtibial prosthesis socket significantly reduced the loading on the intact limb during an 11-meter walk test, indicating that a misaligned limb could have drastic long-term consequences on the sound side of the body. [64]

Transfemoral

Systematic changes to transfemoral prosthetic alignment altered the flexion-extension behavior of the hip, changing fore-aft ground reaction forces and the antero-posterior moments at the knee and ankle joints. [65] The sole reliance on the hip joint to control the entire prosthetic limb makes fine-tuning foot placement difficult. Lowering the knee joint height was found to effectively increase the hip joint's lever arm, thereby increasing precision control of the hip joint to improve gait symmetry and increase running velocity by 26% on average. [66]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amputation</span> Medical procedure that removes a part of the body

Amputation is the removal of a limb by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventive surgery for such problems. A special case is that of congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where fetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, amputation is currently used to punish people who commit crimes. Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment. When done by a person, the person executing the amputation is an amputator. The oldest evidence of this practice comes from a skeleton found buried in Liang Tebo cave, East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo dating back to at least 31,000 years ago, where it was done when the amputee was a young child.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prosthesis</span> Artificial device that replaces a missing body part

In medicine, a prosthesis, or a prosthetic implant, is an artificial device that replaces a missing body part, which may be lost through trauma, disease, or a condition present at birth. Prostheses are intended to restore the normal functions of the missing body part. Amputee rehabilitation is primarily coordinated by a physiatrist as part of an inter-disciplinary team consisting of physiatrists, prosthetists, nurses, physical therapists, and occupational therapists. Prostheses can be created by hand or with computer-aided design (CAD), a software interface that helps creators design and analyze the creation with computer-generated 2-D and 3-D graphics as well as analysis and optimization tools.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gait (human)</span> A pattern of limb movements made during locomotion

A gait is a manner of limb movements made during locomotion. Human gaits are the various ways in which humans can move, either naturally or as a result of specialized training. Human gait is defined as bipedal forward propulsion of the center of gravity of the human body, in which there are sinuous movements of different segments of the body with little energy spent. Varied gaits are characterized by differences such as limb movement patterns, overall velocity, forces, kinetic and potential energy cycles, and changes in contact with the ground.

Osseointegration is the direct structural and functional connection between living bone and the surface of a load-bearing artificial implant. A more recent definition defines osseointegration as "functional ankylosis ", where new bone is laid down directly on the implant surface and the implant exhibits mechanical stability. Osseointegration has enhanced the science of medical bone and joint replacement techniques as well as dental implants and improving prosthetics for amputees.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Unequal leg length</span> Medical condition

Unequal leg length is where the legs are either different lengths or appear to be different lengths because of misalignment. Leg length inequality is very common; small inequalities in leg length may affect 40%-70% of the human population. It has been estimated that at least 0.1% of the population have a difference greater than 20 mm (0.79 in).

James Foort was a Canadian inventor, artist, and innovator in the field of prosthetic limbs.

Targeted reinnervation enables amputees to control motorized prosthetic devices and to regain sensory feedback. The method was developed by Dr. Todd Kuiken at Northwestern University and Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago and Dr. Gregory Dumanian at Northwestern University Division of Plastic Surgery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orthotics</span> Medical specialty that focuses on the building and designing of artificial legs

Orthotics is a medical specialty that focuses on the design and application of orthoses, sometimes known as braces or calipers. An orthosis is "an externally applied device used to influence the structural and functional characteristics of the neuromuscular and skeletal systems." Orthotists are professionals who specialize in designing these braces.

Children's feet are smaller than those of adults, not reaching full size until the ages of 13 in girls and 15 in boys. There are correspondingly small sizes of shoes for them. In poor populations and tropical countries, children commonly go barefoot.

T42 is a disability sport classification for disability athletics, applying to athletes with single above the knee amputations or a disability that is comparable. This class includes ISOD classified A2 and A9 competitors.

T43 is a disability sport classification for disability athletics, applying to athletes with "Double below knee amputation or similar disability." It includes ISOD classified athletes from the A4 and A9 classes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">T44 (classification)</span> Classification for disability athletics

T44 is a disability sport classification for disability athletics, applying to "Single below knee amputation or an athlete who can walk with moderately reduced function in one or both legs." It includes ISOD A4 and A9 classes.

Neuromechanics of orthoses refers to how the human body interacts with orthoses. Millions of people in the U.S. suffer from stroke, multiple sclerosis, postpolio, spinal cord injuries, or various other ailments that benefit from the use of orthoses. Insofar as active orthoses and powered exoskeletons are concerned, the technology to build these devices is improving rapidly, but little research has been done on the human side of these human-machine interfaces.

Robotic prosthesis control is a method for controlling a prosthesis in such a way that the controlled robotic prosthesis restores a biologically accurate gait to a person with a loss of limb. This is a special branch of control that has an emphasis on the interaction between humans and robotics.

Amputee sports classification is a disability specific sport classification used for disability sports to facilitate fair competition among people with different types of amputations. This classification was set up by International Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD), and is currently managed by IWAS who ISOD merged with in 2005. Several sports have sport specific governing bodies managing classification for amputee sportspeople.

A2 is an amputee sport classification used by the International Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD).for people with acquired or congenital amputations. A2 sportspeople have one leg amputated above the knee. Their amputations impact their sport performance, including having balance issues, increased energy costs, higher rates of oxygen consumption, and issues with their gait.

A3 is an amputee sport classification used by the International Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD) for people with acquired or congenital amputations. A3 classified sportspeople have both legs amputated below knee. Their amputations impact their sport performance, including having balance issues, increased energy costs, higher rates of oxygen consumption, and issues with their gait. Sports people in this class are eligible to participate in include athletics, swimming, sitting volleyball, archery, weightlifting, badminton, lawn bowls, sitzball and wheelchair basketball.

A4 is an amputee sport classification used by the International Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD).for people with acquired or congenital amputations. People in this class have one leg amputated below the knee. Their amputations impact their sport performance, including having balance issues, increased energy costs, higher rates of oxygen consumption, and issues with their gait. Sports people in this class are eligible to participate in include athletics, swimming, sitting volleyball, archery, weightlifting, wheelchair basketball, amputee basketball, amputee football, lawn bowls, and sitzball.

A1 is an amputee sport classification used by the International Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD) for people with acquired or congenital amputations. This class is for sportspeople who have both legs amputated above the knee. Their amputations impact their sport performance, including having balance issues, increased energy costs, higher rates of oxygen consumption, and issues with their gait. Sports people in this class are eligible to participate in include athletics, swimming, sitting volleyball, archery, weightlifting, badminton, lawn bowls, sitzball and wheelchair basketball.

Robert S. Gailey Jr., PT, PhD, FAPTA, is an American physical therapist; professor at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine Department of Physical Therapy; and the Director of the Neil Spielholz Functional Outcomes Research & Evaluation Center. His research efforts include amputee rehabilitation, prosthetic gait, and functional assessment. He developed the Amputee Mobility Predictor (AMP), an outcome measure designed to evaluate the ambulatory potential of lower-limb amputees with and without the use of a prosthesis. In 2002, he was appointed as a Special Advisor to the United States Department of Defense for amputee rehabilitation. In the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, he served as the rehabilitation coordinator for Project Medishare.

References

  1. ↑ Verghese, Joe; Ambrose, Anne F.; Lipton, Richard B.; Wang, Cuiling (2010-03-01). "Neurological gait abnormalities and risk of falls in older adults". Journal of Neurology. 257 (3): 392–398. doi:10.1007/s00415-009-5332-y. ISSN   0340-5354. PMC   2838981 . PMID   19784714.
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  19. 1 2 Goujon-Pillet, Helene; Sapin, Emilie; Fode, Pascale; Lavaste, Francois (Jan 2008). "Three-Dimensional Motions of Trunk and Pelvis During Transfemoral Amputee Gait". Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 89 (1): 87–94. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2007.08.136. PMID   18164336.
  20. 1 2 Williams, Matthew R; D'Andrea, Susan; Herr, Hugh M (June 2016). "Impact on gait biomechanics of using an active variable impedance prosthetic knee". J Neuroeng Rehabil. 13 (1): 54–64. doi: 10.1186/s12984-016-0159-0 . PMC   4901431 . PMID   27283318.
  21. 1 2 Jaegers, Sonja MHJ; Arendzen, J Hans; de Jongh, Henry J (Aug 1995). "Prosthetic gait of unilateral transfemoral amputees: A kinematic study". Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 76 (8): 736–743. doi:10.1016/S0003-9993(95)80528-1. PMID   7632129.
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  25. 1 2 Hof, AL; van Bockel, RM; Schoppen, T; Postema, K (Feb 2007). "Control of lateral balance in walking. Experimental findings in normal subjects and above-knee amputees" (PDF). Gait & Posture. 25 (2): 250–258. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2006.04.013. hdl: 11370/d721bb4e-2e81-4c60-a4ae-e0f2cb54428c . PMID   16740390.
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