Attalea (plant)

Last updated

Attalea
Attalea brasiliensis.jpg
Attalea brasiliensis
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Arecales
Family: Arecaceae
Subfamily: Arecoideae
Tribe: Cocoseae
Subtribe: Attaleinae
Genus: Attalea
Kunth
Type species
Attalea amygdalina
Kunth
Diversity
Between 29 and 67 species
Synonyms [1]

Attalea is a large genus of palms native to Mexico, the Caribbean, Central and South America. This pinnately-leaved, non-spiny genus includes both small palms lacking an aboveground stem and large trees. The genus has a complicated taxonomic history, and has often been split into four or five genera based on differences in the male flowers. Since the genera can only be distinguished on the basis of their male flowers, the existence of intermediate flower types and the existence of hybrids between different genera has been used as an argument for keeping them all in the same genus. This has been supported by recent molecular phylogenies.

Contents

Between 29 and 67 species are recognised in the genus, with estimates of as many as 100. Incomplete herbarium collections make it difficult to determine whether certain groups represent single species, or groups of similar species. Attalea species have a long history of human use, and include economically important sources of palm oil and fibre. Many species are fire tolerant and thrive in disturbed habitats. Their seeds are animal dispersed, including some which are thought to have been adapted for dispersal by now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna.

Description

Detail of the crown of Attalea maripa showing leaf arrangement and inflorescences Attalea maripa closeup.jpg
Detail of the crown of Attalea maripa showing leaf arrangement and inflorescences

Attalea is a genus of non-spiny palms with pinnately compound leaves—rows of leaflets emerge on either side of the axis of the leaf in a feather-like or fern-like pattern. Species range from large trees with stout stems up to 30 metres (98 ft) tall to acaulescent palms (ones which lack an aboveground stem). [2] The number of leaves per individual varies from about three to thirty-five; larger plants tend to have more and longer leaves. [2]

Inflorescences are large, branched and borne among the leaves. [2] The inflorescence consists of a main axis—the peduncle and the rachis—and a series of smaller branches, the rachillae. The rachillae, which bear the flowers, emerge from the rachis. The peduncle is the main stalk, connecting the rachis with the stem. [3] Inflorescences either consist entirely of male flowers, or are predominantly female with a few male flowers. [2] Fruit usually have two or three seeds, although fewer or more are present in some species, and are usually brown, yellow, orange-brown or purple when mature. [2]

Four different types of male flowers exist. On the basis of these flower types, the genus has often been split into four genera—a more narrowly defined Attalea, Orbignya, Maximiliana, and Scheelea. [2] The species sometimes referred to Orbignya have coiled anthers, while the other groups have straight ones. The petals of those placed in Maximiliana are much shorter than the stamens, while those placed in Scheelea and a more narrowly defined Attalea have petals that are longer than the stamens. [3] Five species do not fit easily into any of these groups; this fact has been used as an argument in favour of considering this group a single genus. [3]

Taxonomy

Cocos nucifera

Syagrus

Lytocaryum (nested within Syagrus)

Simplified phylogeny of members of the subtribe Attaleinae, based on seven WRKY gene loci. [4]

Attalea has been placed in the subfamily Arecoideae, the tribe Cocoseae and the subtribe Attaleinae, together with the genera Allagoptera , Beccariophoenix , Butia , Cocos , Jubaea , Jubaeopsis , Parajubaea , Syagrus , and Voanioala . [5] [6] Within this subtribe, Attalea has been found to be a monophyletic group, and sister to the clade containing Allagoptera, Polyandrococos , [7] Parajubaea, Butia, and Jubaea. [4]

Disagreement exists as to whether Attalea should be considered a single genus, or a group of related genera. In their 1996 Field Guide to the Palms of the Americas, Andrew Henderson, Gloria Galeano, and Rodrigo Bernal combined all the species in the subtribe Attaleinae (as it was then defined) into a single genus, Attalea. In his 1999 Taxonomic Treatment of Palm Subtribe Attaleinae, American botanist Sidney F. Glassman divided the group into five genera—a more narrowly defined Attalea, Orbignya, Maximiliana, Scheelea and Ynesa, [3] although he thought it likely that Ynesa colenda, the only member of that genus, was actually a hybrid. [8] Rafäel Govaerts and John Dransfield recognised a single genus in their 2005 World Checklist of Palms, [9] and Jean-Christophe Pintaud continued this usage in his 2008 review of the genus. [3]

The multigenus approach is based solely on the structure of the male flowers; no other characters could be consistently associated with one genus or another. [10] Four of the genera—Attalea (in a narrow sense), Orbignya, Maximiliana and Scheelea—correspond to four different types of male flowers found within the genus. However, a few species have flowers that are intermediate between these four types, including A. colenda (which Glassman placed in its own genus, Ynesa) and this has been used as an argument for the single-genus approach. The fact that there are several hybrids between species that would be considered different genera under Glassman's five-genus system was also used as an argument for placing them in a single genus. [3] Molecular phylogenetic work by Alan Meerow and colleagues concluded that multi-genus approach did not produce monophyletic groups, but treating Attalea as a single genus did. [6]

Cintia Freitas and colleagues identified three main clades within the genus based on the nuclear WRKY gene family. The first of these, a group of species from the coastal Atlantic Forest region in Brazil all of which had been placed in Attalea in the narrow sense, was termed the Attalea-like clade. This group was a sister to the other two clades. The second group, which they called the Scheelea-like clade, consisted of most of the species formerly placed in Scheelea, together with several that had been placed in Attalea (narrowly defined) and Orbigyna. The third group consisted mainly of species formerly placed in Orbigyna and Maximiliana; they called this the Orbigyna-like clade. Despite the existence of three well-supported clades, Freitas and colleagues concluded that the concept of Attalea as a single genus was best supported by their evidence. [6]

History

The genus Attalea was first described Carl Sigismund Kunth in 1816 based on specimens collected by Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland, [1] although older, pre-Linnaean descriptions exist, including Charles Plumier's 1703 description of A. crassispatha. [11] The genus was named for Attalus III Philometor, king of Pergamon, known for his interest in medicinal plants. [2] The type species is A. amygdalina , a Colombian endemic. [12] The genera Maximiliana and Orbignya were described by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius in 1826 [13] and 1837 [14] respectively. Scheelea was described by Hermann Karsten in 1857, [15] and Ynesa by Orator F. Cook in 1942. [16]

Species

Attalea crassispatha, a Haitian endemic, is the most geographically isolated species in the genus. Attalea crassispatha.jpg
Attalea crassispatha , a Haitian endemic, is the most geographically isolated species in the genus.
This section is an excerpt from List of Attalea species.[ edit ]
Experts disagree about the number of species in Attalea. In 1965, Dutch taxonomist Jan Gerard Wessels Boer estimated that as many as 100 species may be in the genus. In their 1996 Field Guide to the Palms of the Americas Andrew Henderson and coauthors recognised 29 species in the genus, while Sidney Glassman recognised 65 species in his 1999 treatment of the group. Largely following Glassman's lead, Rafaël Govaerts and John Dransfield recognised 67 species in their 2005 World Checklist of Palms. An important element of this disagreement is the decision by Glassman to define species more narrowly than Henderson. As a result, what Henderson interpreted as variation within species, Glassman took as differences between morphologically similar species. This problem is complicated by the fact that many of these species are poorly represented in herbarium collections. The large size of the leaves, inflorescences and fruit of many Attalea species makes them difficult to collect. In addition, many important collections, including type specimens, have been lost or destroyed. [17] Sparse or incomplete collections make it difficult to differentiate variation within a single species from variation between different species. [17] [18] Taxonomic uncertainty is exacerbated by frequent hybridisation between species. [19]

Reproduction and growth

Male inflorescence of Attalea sp. swarming with insects. Male inflorescence of Attalea sp.jpg
Male inflorescence of Attalea sp. swarming with insects.
Attalea sp. - MHNT Attalea sp. MHNT.BOT.2008.1.27.jpg
Attalea sp. – MHNT

Attalea species are monoecious—male and female flowers are separate, but are borne by the same plant. [2] Various species have been described as being insect-pollinated, including A. phalerata , [20] while pollination in A. colenda and A. speciosa, has been attributed both to insects and wind. [21] [22] The fruit are animal-dispersed. [2]

Seed germination is remote tubular [23] —during germination, as the cotyledon expands it pushes the young shoot away from the seed. [24] After germination, the stem initially grows downward before turning to grow upward and produce the aboveground stem. [25] This produces a "saxophone shaped" belowground portion of the stem. [26] The fact that the shoot tips of Attalea seedlings are underground it likely to contribute to their fire-tolerance. [2]

Distribution

Species range across the Neotropics from Mexico in the north to Bolivia, Paraguay, and southern Brazil in the south, [3] from low elevations in coastal Brazil to up to 1,600 m (5,200 ft) above sea level in the Andes. [6] According to Govaerts and coauthors, three species are found in Mexico, four in Central America, and 62 in South America. Three species are present in the Caribbean—two in Trinidad and Tobago, along the southern edge of the region, and one in Haiti. [27]

Habitat and ecology

Scarlet macaw feeding on Attalea fruit. Ara macao feeding on Attalea fruits.jpg
Scarlet macaw feeding on Attalea fruit.

Attalea includes both large trees and small, acaulescent palms, which occupy a number of different ecological niches. Dense stands of some of the larger species are conspicuous elements on the landscape, while smaller species are found in both in the forest understorey and in savannas. [3]

Disturbance has been implicated in the formation of vegetation dominated by large Attalea species. [2] In seasonally dry Amazonian forests, the density of large adult A. maripa palms was correlated with canopy openness; [26] the species also dominates savannas formed by repeated forest fires in Trinidad and Tobago. [28] A. speciosa forms pure stands in many parts of Brazil where natural forest vegetation has been cleared. [29] Similarly, stands of A. funifera in Bahia, Brazil (which are cultivated for piassava fibre) are managed using fire—the seedlings survive cutting and burning, and are able to dominate burned forest patches. [30]

The fruit are dispersed by animals; fruit which are not dispersed frequently suffer seed predation by bruchid beetles. [2] Certain species of Attalea have been mentioned as examples of anachronistic species which are adapted for dispersal by now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna. [31] [32] On Maracá Island, Roraima, in the Brazilian Amazon, A. maripa fruit were consumed by tapirs, collared peccaries, deer, and primates. Rodents, including agoutis, fed upon the fruit, and as the fruit availability declined, they fed on the seeds. [33] Other dispersers of Attalea fruit include crested caracaras, which consume the fruit and disperse the seeds of A. phalerata in the Brazilian Pantanal. [34]

Uses

Attalea species have a long history of human use. Carbonised Attalea maripa seeds have been found in archaeological sites in Colombia dating back to 9000 BP. [35] Several species remain important sources of edible oil, thatch, edible seeds, and fibre. The leaves of Attalea butyracea and A. maripa are used extensively for thatching. Several species are oil palms, with A. speciosa among the most important economically. [2] Products extracted from A. speciosa were reported to support over 300,000 households in the Brazilian state of Maranhão in 2005, [36] and in 1985 it was estimated to support over 450,000 households throughout the Brazil. [29] Piassava fibres, extracted from the leaf bases of A. funifera, are commercially important, [2] and generated about US$20 million in annual income to Brazilian farmers in 1996. [37]

Related Research Articles

<i>Attalea maripa</i> Species of palm

Attalea maripa, commonly called maripa palm is a palm native to tropical South America and Trinidad and Tobago. It grows up 35 m (115 ft) tall and can have leaves or fronds 10–12 m (33–39 ft) long. This plant has a yellow edible fruit which is oblong ovoid and cream. An edible oil can be extracted from the pulp of the fruit and from the kernel of the seed.

<i>Bactris</i> Genus of palms

Bactris is a genus of spiny palms which are native to Mexico, South and Central America and the Caribbean. Most species are small trees about 2 m tall, but some are large trees while others are shrubs with subterranean stems. They have simple or pinnately compound leaves and yellow, orange, red or purple-black fruit. The genus is most closely related to several other spiny palms—Acrocomia, Aiphanes, Astrocaryum and Desmoncus. The fruit of several species is edible, most notably B. gasipaes, while others are used medicinally or for construction.

<i>Syagrus</i> (plant) Genus of palms

Syagrus is a genus of Arecaceae (palms), native to South America, with one species endemic to the Lesser Antilles. The genus is closely related to the Cocos, or coconut genus, and many Syagrus species produce edible seeds similar to the coconut.

<i>Coccothrinax</i> Genus of palms

Coccothrinax is a genus of palms in the family Arecaceae. There are more than 50 species described in the genus, plus many synonyms and subspecies. A new species was described as recently as 2017. Many Coccothrinax produce thatch. In Spanish-speaking countries, guano is a common name applied to Coccothrinax palms. The species are native throughout the Caribbean, the Bahamas, extreme southern Florida and southeastern Mexico, but most of the species are known only from Cuba.

<i>Attalea speciosa</i> Species of palm

Attalea speciosa, the babassu, babassu palm, babaçu, or cusi, is a palm native to the Amazon Rainforest region in South America. The babassu palm is the predominant species in the Maranhão Babaçu forests of Maranhão and Piauí states.

Bactris campestris is a small spiny palm which grows in multi-stemmed clumps in savannas and low forests in northern South America from Colombia to the Guianas, Trinidad and Tobago, and northern Brazil.

<i>Desmoncus</i> Genus of plants

Desmoncus is a genus of mostly climbing, spiny palms native to the Neotropics. The genus extends from Mexico in the north to Brazil and Bolivia in the south, with two species present in the southeastern Caribbean.

<i>Attalea crassispatha</i> Species of palm

Attalea crassispatha is a palm which is endemic to southwest Haiti. The most geographically isolated member of the genus, it is considered a critically endangered species and has been called one of the rarest palms in the Americas.

<i>Chelyocarpus</i> Genus of palms

Chelyocarpus is a genus of small to medium-sized fan palms which are native to northwestern South America. Some are upright trees, while others creep along the ground. Species are used for thatch, to weave hats, stuff pillows and as a source of salt.

<i>Hedyscepe</i> Genus of palms

Hedyscepe canterburyana, the big mountain palm or umbrella palm, is the sole species in the genus Hedyscepe of the family Arecaceae. It is endemic to Lord Howe Island, Australia and is threatened by habitat loss. It is a solitary palm with a distinct crownshaft, and bears unisexual flowers of both sexes. With the Rhopalostylis palms of Norfolk Island and New Zealand it forms the botanic subtribe Rhopalostylidinae. If differs from Rhopalostylis in minor floral details including having more than six stamens, and in being protandrous rather than protogynous. The two genera were formerly included in Archontophoenicinae until a recent revision. In some molecular phylogenetic analyses, Hedyscepe was found to be nested in the New Caledonia endemic Basselinia.

<i>Kentiopsis</i> Genus of palm trees

Kentiopsis is a genus of palm trees endemic to New Caledonia. Relationships between Kentiopsis and the other genera of subtribe Archontophoenicinae, including the Australian Archontophoenix and the New Caledonia endemic Chambeyronia and Actinokentia are unresolved.

<i>Trithrinax</i> Genus of palms

Trithrinax is a genus of flowering plants in the subfamily Coryphoideae of the family Arecaceae. The name is derived from ancient Greek, where tri means three, and thrinax trident. It was named in 1837 by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, a German botanist and explorer.

<i>Aphandra</i> Genus of palms

Aphandra is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the palm family native to the Amazon rainforest vegetation in South America. Its only species is Aphandra natalia, sometimes called mastodon palm or fiber palm, and is used by indigenous peoples in the construction of brooms and other products. This plant is commercially exploited for its edible fruits, and for its leaf sheath and petiole fibers. This fiber is almost equal to the fiber extracted from Attalea funifera and Leopoldinia piassaba, which is called piassava.

<i>Attalea phalerata</i> Species of palm

Attalea phalerata is a species of palm tree known by the English common name urucuri palm, the Portuguese common name urucurizeiro, and the Spanish common name shapaja. Other common names include motacu and bacuri. It is native to Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Peru, where it grows along southern and western Amazonia. It is the most common palm tree on the Pantanal.

Clinosperma is a palm tree genus in the family Arecaceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Borasseae</span> Tribe of palms

Borasseae is a tribe in the palm subfamily Coryphoideae. The tribe ranges from southern Africa and Madagascar north through the Arabian Peninsula to India, Indochina, Indonesia and New Guinea. Several genera are restricted to islands in the Indian Ocean. The two largest genera, Hyphaene and Borassus, are also the most widespread.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chuniophoeniceae</span> Tribe of palms

Chuniophoeniceae is a tribe of palms in subfamily Coryphoideae of plant family Arecaceae. The four genera within the tribe are morphologically dissimilar and do not have overlapping distributions. Three of the genera are monotypic, while the fourth genus (Chuniophoenix) has three species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attaleinae</span> Tribe of palms

Attaleinae is a subtribe of plants in the family Arecaceae. Genera in the subtribe, the majority of which are found in South America, are:

<i>Attalea dubia</i> Species of palm

Attalea dubia, also known as the Indaiá plant, babassu palm, or bacuaçu palm is a flowering plant in the family Arecaceae, native to the Southern and Southeast Regions of Brazil.

References

  1. 1 2 "Attalea Kunth in F.W.H.von Humboldt, A.J.A.Bonpland & C.S.Kunth, Nov. Gen. Sp. 1: 309 (1816)". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Archived from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Henderson, Andrew; Gloria Galeano (1995). Field Guide to the Palms of the Americas. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 153–164. ISBN   0-691-08537-4.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Pintaud, Jean-Christophe (2008). "An overview of the taxonomy of Attalea (Arecaceae)" (PDF). Revista Peruana de Biología. 15 (supl. 1): 055–063.
  4. 1 2 Meerow, Alan W.; Larry Noblick; James W. Borrone; Thomas L. P. Couvreur; Margarita Mauro-Herrera; William J. Hahn; David N. Kuhn; Kyoko Nakamura; Nora H. Oleas; Raymond J. Schnell (2009). Joly, Simon (ed.). "Phylogenetic Analysis of Seven WRKY Genes across the Palm Subtribe Attaleinae (Arecaceae) Identifies Syagrus as Sister Group of the Coconut". PLOS ONE. 4 (10): e7353. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7353M. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007353 . PMC   2752195 . PMID   19806212.
  5. ↑ Dransfield, John; Natalie W. Uhl; Conny B. Asmussen; William J. Baker; Madeline M. Harley; Carl E. Lewis (2005). "A New Phylogenetic Classification of the Palm Family, Arecaceae". Kew Bulletin. 60 (4): 559–69. JSTOR   25070242.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Freitas, Cintia; Meerow, Alan W.; Pintaud, Jean-Christophe; Henderson, Andrew; Noblick, Larry; Costa, Flavia R. C.; Barbosa, Carlos E.; Barrington, David (2016). "Phylogenetic analysis of Attalea (Arecaceae): insights into the historical biogeography of a recently diversified Neotropical plant group". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 182 (2): 287–302. doi: 10.1111/boj.12466 .
  7. ↑ Dransfield et al. listed this genus as a synonym of Allagoptera, but Meerow et al. recognised it as a distinct genus in their analysis.
  8. ↑ Glassman, Sidney F. (1999). "A Taxonomic Treatment of the Palm Subtribe Attaleinae (Tribe Cocoeae)". Illinois Biological Monographs. 59: 1–414.
  9. ↑ "WCSP". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Archived from the original on May 17, 2008. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  10. ↑ Anderson, Anthony B.; Michael J. Balick (1988). "Taxonomy of the Babassu Complex (Orbignya spp.: Palmae)" (PDF). Systematic Botany. 13 (1): 32–50. doi:10.2307/2419239. JSTOR   2419239.
  11. ↑ Henderson, Andrew; Michael Balick (1991). "Attalea crassispatha, a rare and endemic Haitian palm". Brittonia (JSTOR subscription required). 43 (3): 189–194. doi:10.2307/2807059. JSTOR   2807059. S2CID   12177917.
  12. ↑ "Attalea amygdalina". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Retrieved 2010-02-17.
  13. ↑ "Maximiliana". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Retrieved 2010-02-17.
  14. ↑ "Orbignya". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Retrieved 2010-02-17.
  15. ↑ "Scheelea". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Retrieved 2010-02-17.
  16. ↑ "Ynesa". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Retrieved 2010-02-17.
  17. 1 2 Pintaud, Jean-Christophe (2008). "An overview of the taxonomy of Attalea (Arecaceae)" (PDF). Revista Peruana de Biología. 15 (supl. 1): 055–063.
  18. ↑ Anderson, Anthony B.; Michael J. Balick (1988). "Taxonomy of the Babassu Complex (Orbignya spp.: Palmae)" (PDF). Systematic Botany. 13 (1): 32–50. doi:10.2307/2419239. JSTOR   2419239.
  19. ↑ Freitas, Cintia; Meerow, Alan W.; Pintaud, Jean-Christophe; Henderson, Andrew; Noblick, Larry; Costa, Flavia R. C.; Barbosa, Carlos E.; Barrington, David (2016). "Phylogenetic analysis of Attalea (Arecaceae): insights into the historical biogeography of a recently diversified Neotropical plant group". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 182 (2): 287–302. doi: 10.1111/boj.12466 .
  20. ↑ Moraes R., Mónica; Finn Borchsenius; Ulla Blicher-Mathiesen (1996). "Notes on the Biology and Uses of the Motacú Palm (Attalea phalerata, Arecaceae) from Bolivia". Economic Botany. 50 (4): 423–428. doi:10.1007/BF02866525. JSTOR   4255886. S2CID   19066490.
  21. ↑ Feil, Jan Peter (1996). "Fruit Production of Attalea colenda (Arecaceae) in Coastal Ecuador: An Alternative Oil Resource?". Economic Botany. 50 (3): 300–309. doi:10.1007/BF02907337. JSTOR   4255847. S2CID   22885187.
  22. ↑ Anderson, Anthony B.; William L. Overal; Andrew Henderson (1988). "Pollination Ecology of a Forest-Dominant Palm (Orbignya phalerata Mart.) in Northern Brazil". Biotropica. 20 (3): 192–205. doi:10.2307/2388234. JSTOR   2388234.
  23. ↑ Uhl, Natalie E.; John Dransfield (1987). Genera Palmarum: a classification of palms based on the work of Harold E. Moore Jr. Lawrence, Kansas: The L. H. Bailey Hortorium and the International Palm Society. pp. 503–512. ISBN   0-935868-30-5.
  24. ↑ Pinheiro, Claudio Urbano B. (2001). "Germination strategies in palms: the case of Schippia concolor in Belize". Brittonia. 53 (4): 519–527. doi:10.1007/BF02809652. S2CID   45335410.
  25. ↑ Salm, Rudolfo (2004). "Tree species diversity in a seasonally-dry forest: the case of the Pinkaití site, in the Kayapó Indigenous Area, Southeastern limits of the Amazon". Acta Amazonica. 34 (3): 435–443. doi: 10.1590/S0044-59672004000300009 .
  26. 1 2 Salm, Rudolfo (2005). "The importance of forest disturbance for the recruitment of the large arborescent palm Attalea maripa in a seasonally dry Amazonian forest". Biota Neotropica. 5 (1).
  27. ↑ Govaerts, R.; J. Henderson; S.F. Zona; D.R. Hodel; A. Henderson (2010). "World Checklist of Arecaceae". The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Archived from the original on February 21, 2007. Retrieved 2010-02-27.
  28. ↑ Beard, J. S. (1953). "The Savanna Vegetation of Northern Tropical America". Ecological Monographs. 23 (2): 149–215. doi:10.2307/1948518. JSTOR   1948518.
  29. 1 2 May, Peter H.; Anthony B. Anderson; Michael J. Balick; José Mário F. Frazão (1985). "Subsistence Benefits from the Babassu Palm (Orbignya martiana)" (PDF). Economic Botany. 39 (2): 113–129. doi:10.1007/BF02907831. JSTOR   4254727. S2CID   43133375.
  30. ↑ Voeks, Robert A.; Sergio G. da Vinha (1988). "Fire Management of the Piassava Fiber Palm (Attalea funifera) in Eastern Brazil" (PDF). Yearbook, Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers. 14: 7–13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
  31. ↑ Janzen, Daniel H.; Paul S. Martin (1982). "Neotropical Anachronisms: The Fruit the Gomphotheres Ate". Science. 215 (4528): 19–27. Bibcode:1982Sci...215...19J. doi:10.1126/science.215.4528.19. PMID   17790450. S2CID   19296719.[ permanent dead link ]
  32. ↑ Guimarães, Paola R. Jr.; Mauro Galetti; Pedro Jordano (2008). Hansen, Dennis Marinus (ed.). "Seed Dispersal Anachronisms: Rethinking the Fruits Extinct Megafauna Ate". PLOS ONE. 3 (3): e1745. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.1745G. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001745 . PMC   2258420 . PMID   18320062.
  33. ↑ Fragoso, Jose M. V. (1997). "Tapir-Generated Seed Shadows: Scale-Dependent Patchiness in the Amazon Rain Forest". Journal of Ecology. 85 (4): 519–29. doi:10.2307/2960574. JSTOR   2960574.
  34. ↑ Galetti, Mauro; Paulo R. Guimarães Jr. (2004). "Seed dispersal of Attalea phalerata (Palmae) by Crested caracaras (Caracara plancus) in the Pantanal and a review of frugivory by raptors" (PDF). Ararajuba. 12 (2): 133–135.[ permanent dead link ]
  35. ↑ Morcote-Ríos, Gaspar; Rodrigo Bernal (2001). "Remains of palms (Palmae) at archaeological sites in the New World: A review". Botanical Review. 67 (3): 309–50. doi:10.1007/BF02858098. S2CID   46582757.
  36. ↑ Porro, Roberto (2005). "Palms, Pastures, and Swidden Fields: The Grounded Political Ecology of "Agro-Extractive/Shifting-cultivator Peasants" in Maranhão, Brazil". Human Ecology. 33 (1): 17–56. doi:10.1007/s10745-005-1654-2. S2CID   153617434.
  37. ↑ Voeks, Robert A. (2002). "Reproductive ecology of the piassava palm (Attalea funifera) of Bahia, Brazil". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 18: 121–136. doi:10.1017/s0266467402002079. S2CID   84211050.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.