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Buddhism includes a wide array of divine beings that are venerated in various ritual and popular contexts. Initially they included mainly Indian figures such as devas, asuras and yakshas, but later came to include other Asian spirits and local gods (like the Burmese nats and the Japanese kami ). They range from enlightened Buddhas to regional spirits adopted by Buddhists or practiced on the margins of the religion.
Buddhists later also came to incorporate aspects from the countries to which it spread. As such, it includes many aspects taken from other mythologies of those cultures.
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A Buddha is a being who is fully awakened and has fully comprehended the Four Noble Truths. In the Theravada tradition, while there is a list of acknowledged past Buddhas, the historical Buddha Sakyamuni is the only Buddha of our current era and is generally not seen as accessible or as existing in some higher plane of existence. The Pali literature of the Theravāda tradition includes tales of twenty-nine Buddhas, which are Sakyamuni and the twenty-eight Buddhas who preceded him.
Mahayana Buddhists venerate numerous Buddhas, more so than the Theravada tradition, including Maitreya and Amitābha, who are seen as beings of great wisdom and power who preside over pure lands that one can travel to after death. Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions also recognize five primary Buddhas:
Each is associated with a different consort, direction, aggregate (or aspect of the personality), emotion, element, color, symbol, and mount. [1] In later, especially tantric sources, each male Buddha is associated with a specific female Buddha (though their names and attributes vary across the various Buddhist sources). Here is one common list of the five female Buddhas (also called prajñās, or vidyas): [2] [3]
In Tibetan Buddhism, several female Buddhas are also recognized, such as Tara, the most popular female Buddha in Tibetan Buddhism, who comes in many forms and colors. Other female Buddha figures include Vajrayogini, Nairatmya, and Kurukullā.
Other Buddhas besides these five include Bhaisajyaguru (the Buddha of medicine) and Nageshvara Raja (the king of the Nāgas).
There is also the idea of the Adi-Buddha, the "first Buddha" to attain Buddhahood. Variously named as Vajradhara, Samantabhadra, Shiva, and Mahavairocana, the first Buddha is also associated with the concept of Dharmakaya and the Ground of all phenomena.
Some historical figures are also seen as Buddhas, such as the Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna (sometimes called the second Buddha) and the figure of Padmasambhava.
In Theravada Buddhism, bodhisatta is a term used mainly for Sakyamuni Buddha before his awakening. It is also commonly believed that the future Buddha, Maitreya (Pali: Metteya) currently resides in Tushita Heaven, and this figure is one of the few bodhisattvas who have a prominent place in Theravada. [4] [5]
In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva is any being that has aroused bodhicitta (mind of awakening) and is thus working towards full Buddhahood. Bodhisattvas who are seen as powerful and highly advanced are highly venerated in this tradition.
In India, a list known as the "Eight Close Sons" (Skt. aṣṭa utaputra) became the main set of bodhisattvas of Shakyamuni Buddha's entourage, they are: [6] [7]
In Tibetan Buddhism, a Vajrayana Buddhist tradition, the major bodhisattvas are these "eight great bodhisattvas". [8]
The bodhisattva Prajñāpāramitā-devi is a female personification of the perfection of wisdom and the Prajñāpāramitā sutras. She became an important figure, widely depicted in Indian Buddhist art. She is the main female bodhisattva in Indian sources. Other Mahayana sutras also depict female bodhisattvas, such as The Lion's Roar of Śrīmālādevī . [9]
Other male bodhisattvas appearing in Indian sources include Candraprabha, Suryaprabha, Bhaiṣajyasamudgata, Bhaiṣajyarāja, Akṣayamati, and Vajrasattva. There are also other female bodhisattvas like Tara, Ushnishavijaya, Vasudhara and Cundi.
In the East Asian Buddhist traditions, which are mainly Mahayana, major bodhisattvas include many of the above: Guānyīn (Japanese: Kannon), Maitreya (Chinese: Mílè, Jp: Miroku), Samantabhadra (Ch: Pǔxián, Jp: Fugen), Manjushri (Wénshū), Ksitigarbha (Ch: Jìzàng Jp: Jizō), and Akasagarbha. The most popular bodhisattva in the East Asian pantheon is surely Guānyīn (the East Asian form of the Indian Avalokitesvara) who is depicted as female in East Asia, rather than as the Indian male Avalokitesvara. Guanyin is also believed by Buddhists to take on numerous manifestations, among which are several other bodhisattvas such as Cundi and Cintamanicakra.
In addition, Buddhist traditions in different countries have also absorbed native deities into their localized Buddhist pantheon, sometimes as Bodhisattvas. Some examples are Guan Yu in Chinese Buddhism, who is venerated as Sangharama Bodhisattva (Chinese: 伽藍菩薩; Pinyin: Qiélán Púsà) as well as a deity, and Hachiman in Japanese Buddhism, who is venerated as the Bodhisattva Hachiman (Japanese: 八幡大菩薩; Rōmaji: Hachiman Daibosatsu).
Certain historical figures have been considered to be bodhisattvas, like Nagarjuna. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism consider reborn tulkus such as the Dalai Lamas and the Karmapas to be emanations of bodhisattvas. East Asian Buddhist traditions may venerate certain historical figures as bodhisattvas, such as Kukai in the Shingon school.
In Buddhism, there is a class of deities whose main role is to act as guardians, protectors or general removers of evil. Some of these are unique to Buddhism and others are Indian deities that Buddhism shares with Hinduism.
In Mahayana Buddhism there are numerous "dharma protectors" (S. dharmapāla, T. chos skyong; C. fahu 法護), powerful beings who are defenders of Buddhism and protectors of Buddhists against evil or harm. [10] There are two main types of protectors, mundane worldly protectors (who may be devas or spirits) and supramundane awakened protectors, bodhisattvas or buddhas who appear in a specific form to defend the Dharma. [10] The former includes numerous devas such Brahmā and Indra, as well as local spirits and gods that have been adopted by Buddhism. The latter type include popular wrathful deities like: Yamantaka, Ekajaṭī, Mahākāla, Palden Lhamo, and Hayagrīva.
The four "guardians of the world" (lokapāla), also known as the Four Heavenly Kings ( Cāturmahārāja ), are four deities (devas) who protect the four directions of the Sahā world (our world). Each guardian rules over a specific direction and also a class of non-human beings. These guardian deities are found in the earliest Buddhist sources and are shared by Mahayana and Theravada. The four guardians are: [11]
The Wisdom Kings (Sanskrit: Vidyārāja) are beings that are venerated in East Asian Buddhism and in Vajrayana Buddhism. They are often depicted with an aggressive or fierce appearance which symbolizes their power to get rid of negative forces. They are thus often seen as an expression of the Buddha's compassion.
In East Asian Buddhism, The Five Wisdom Kings are often seen as emanations of the Buddhas. These five are:
Other important Wisdom Kings include
The Pañcarakṣā ("Five Protectors") are five protector goddesses which are important in Mahayana Buddhism, the term also refers to their dhāraṇīs . [12] [13] [14] [15]
These five protective dhāraṇī-goddesses are: [12]
In Chinese Buddhism, there is a list of Twenty-Four Protective Deities (Chinese: 二十四諸天; pinyin: Èrshísì Zhūtiān). These are mostly mundane dharmapalas: [16]
The term deva (Sanskrit; Pāli: deva; Tibetan: lha; Chinese: tian 天; Japanese: ten; Korean: cheon) literally means "radiant one" or "shining one" and is commonly translated as "divinity," "heavenly being," or "god." Devas are one of the five (or six, in some traditions) realms of rebirth (gati) within the cycle of existence (saṃsāra). [17] The word deva originates from the Sanskrit root √div, meaning "to shine," and shares an etymological connection with the English word "divinity." Rebirth as a deva is considered a favorable outcome resulting from virtuous deeds (karman) performed in previous lifetimes. While the heavenly realms of devas are regarded as auspicious, they are impermanent and remain part of the cyclic existence of saṃsāra, rather than being eternal heavens. [17] Devas are not all necessarily wise or on the Buddhist path and hence not objects of refuge. They have very long lives which have much less suffering than humans, but are not immortal or immune from suffering. Some devas have no physical form and exist in the formless realms. None of them are creator gods, and they are neither omniscient nor omnipotent. [17]
Buddhist cosmology identifies 27 (alternatively 26 or 28) categories of devas, classified based on their dwelling places (devaloka) within the three realms of existence ( trailokya ): the sensuous realm (kāmadhātu), the material or form realm (rūpadhātu), and the formless or immaterial realm (ārūpyadhātu). [17] Devas are apparitional beings, appearing fully developed at birth. In the sensuous realm, they retain physical bodies and consume food, while those in higher realms subsist on subtler forms of nourishment, such as sensory contact or mental contemplation. [17] Their existence, while pleasurable, remains impermanent, as they are bound by saṃsāra. Upon rebirth, devas are often aware of their past lives and the virtuous deeds that led to their celestial existence. [17]
Some of the most commonly discussed types of devas in Buddhist scriptures include: the Brahma devas, Trāyastriṃśa devas, gandharvas (celestial musicians), and the Tuṣita devas. [17]
Various Indian devas were part of Indian Buddhism from an early period. Examples include Śakra (known as "lord of the devas", the Buddhist Indra) who rules over the devas of the "Heaven of the Thirty Three" (Trayatrimsa), the four Lokapalas ("guardians of the world"), and goddesses like Lakshmi and Hariti.
With the spread of Buddhism out of India, different cultures also integrated or syncretized local deities into their pantheon of devas. For example, Chinese Buddhism venerates the Twenty-Four Protective Devas, which include both originally Indian deities, such as Mahesvara (Shiva), Sakra (Indra), Brahma, Sarasvati, Laksmi, Marici and Hariti, as well as a few deities integrated from Taoism, such as the Emperor Zi Wei and Leigong. Guan Yu, who is regarded as a god of war in Taoism, is also regarded as both a bodhisattva and a deva.
In Japanese Buddhism, Shinto gods were also syncretized into the pantheon under the honji suijaku theory by being conflated with the Indian deities imported from Buddhism, such as Ugajin and Ōkuninushi.
The yidam, or ishta-devata, is a personal meditation deity. The Sanskrit word iṣṭadevatā or iṣṭadevaḥ is defined by V. S. Apte as "a favorite god, one's tutelary deity." [18] Though this term is used in many popular books on Buddhist Tantra, the term işţadevatā has not been attested in any Buddhist tantric text in Sanskrit. The unrelated Tibetan version of the term, possibly of entirely native origin, is yi-dam [19] is said to be a contraction of Tib. yid-kyi-dam-tshig, [20] meaning "samaya of mind"- in other words, the state of being indestructibly bonded with the inherently pure and liberated nature of mind.
The ishta-devata of Hinduism is an aspect of God for personal worship. [21] In Buddhism, a yidam is a manifestation of enlightenment and may take the form of Sambhogakāya Buddhas, tantric deities such as Dakinis, bodhisattvas, Dharma protectors (Dharmapalas) or other historical figures such as past gurus or religious leaders. [20]
In the Buddhist Tantras, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas often manifest in unusual and fierce forms, which are used in tantra as yidams or meditation deities. [22] While some of these deities have a hideous and fierce appearance, they are not personifications of evil or demonic forces. The ferocious appearance of these deities is used to instill fear in evil spirits which threaten the Dharma. [23]
Throughout the history of Buddhism, Buddhists have also venerated and relied on numerous other supranormal beings or spirits.
One important class of beings are the yakṣas, nature-spirits, usually benevolent, who are caretakers of the natural treasures hidden in the earth and tree roots. [24] Having been worshiped in India since before the Vedic period, Buddhists in India venerated these deities as local protector spirits. One important Indian yakṣa was Kubera, the spirit of wealth. [25]
Another important class of beings are the nāgas, a serpentine race of beings, often associated with protecting bodies of water. These beings are also associated with the Mahayana sutras and their protection.
In Burma there exists the popular worship of nature spirits called nats which are worshiped alongside of Buddhism. [26]
In Japan, Buddhists have traditionally venerated the local kami deities.
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Darjeeling, Sikkim, and Zangnan, as well as in Nepal. Smaller groups of practitioners can be found in Central Asia, some regions of China such as Northeast China, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia and some regions of Russia, such as Tuva, Buryatia, and Kalmykia.
Vajrayāna, also known as Mantrayāna, Mantranāya, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, is a Buddhist tradition of tantric practice that developed in Medieval India. Tantrism, which originated within Hinduism during the first millennium CE, significantly influenced South Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism, giving rise to distinct Buddhist tantric traditions. Emerging in the 7th century CE, these traditions spread across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, leading to distinct East Asian and Tibetan practices.
In Buddhism, Buddha is a title for those who are spiritually awake or enlightened, and have thus attained the supreme goal of Buddhism, variously described as nirvana, bodhi, and liberation. A Buddha is also someone who fully understands the Dharma, the true nature of all things or phenomena (dharmas), the ultimate truth. Buddhahood is the condition and state of a buddha. This highest spiritual state of being is also termed sammā-sambodhi and is interpreted in many different ways across schools of Buddhism.
Buddhist texts are religious texts that belong to, or are associated with, Buddhism and its traditions. There is no single textual collection for all of Buddhism. Instead, there are three main Buddhist Canons: the Pāli Canon of the Theravāda tradition, the Chinese Buddhist Canon used in East Asian Buddhist tradition, and the Tibetan Buddhist Canon used in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism.
In Buddhism, wrathful deities or fierce deities are the fierce, wrathful or forceful forms of enlightened Buddhas, Bodhisattvas or Devas ; normally the same figure has other, peaceful, aspects as well. Because of their power to destroy the obstacles to enlightenment, they are also termed krodha-vighnantaka, "Wrathful onlookers on destroying obstacles". Wrathful deities are a notable feature of the iconography of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, especially in Tibetan art. These types of deities first appeared in India during the late 6th century, with its main source being the Yaksha imagery, and became a central feature of Indian Tantric Buddhism by the late 10th or early 11th century.
A dharmapāla is a type of wrathful god in Buddhism. The name means "dharma protector" in Sanskrit, and the dharmapālas are also known as the Defenders of the Justice (Dharma), or the Guardians of the Law. There are two kinds of dharmapala, Worldly Guardians (lokapala) and Wisdom Protectors (jnanapala). Only Wisdom Protectors are enlightened beings.
Buddhist music is music created for or inspired by Buddhism and includes numerous ritual and non-ritual musical forms. As a Buddhist art form, music has been used by Buddhists since the time of early Buddhism, as attested by artistic depictions in Indian sites like Sanchi. While certain early Buddhist sources contain negative attitudes to music, Mahayana sources tend to be much more positive to music, seeing it as a suitable offering to the Buddhas and as a skillful means to bring sentient beings to Buddhism.
Vajrapāṇi is one of the earliest-appearing bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism. He is the protector and guide of Gautama Buddha and rose to symbolize the Buddha's power.
Tara, Ārya Tārā, also known as Jetsün Dölma, is an important female Buddha in Buddhism, especially revered in Vajrayana Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. She may appear as a female bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. In Vajrayana Buddhism, Green Tara is a female Buddha who is a consort of Amoghasiddhi Buddha. Tārā is also known as a saviouress who hears the cries of beings in saṃsāra and saves them from worldly and spiritual danger.
A yidam or iṣṭadevatā is a meditational deity that serves as a focus for meditation and spiritual practice, said to be manifestations of Buddhahood or enlightened mind. Yidams are an integral part of Vajrayana, including both Tibetan Buddhism and Shingon, which emphasize the use of esoteric practices and rituals to attain enlightenment more swiftly. The yidam is one of the three roots of the inner refuge formula and is also the key element of deity yoga. Yidam is sometimes translated by the term "tutelary deity".
Buddhist meditation is the practice of meditation in Buddhism. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā and jhāna/dhyāna.
In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, the Five Tathāgatas (Skt: पञ्चतथागत, pañcatathāgata; or Five Wisdom Tathāgatas, are the five cardinal male and female Buddhas that are inseparable co-equals, although the male cardinal Buddhas are more often represented. Collectively, the male and female Buddhas are known as the Five Buddha Families. The five are also called the Five Great Buddhas, and the Five Jinas.
Tibetan tantric practice, also known as "the practice of secret mantra", and "tantric techniques", refers to the main tantric practices in Tibetan Buddhism. The great Rime scholar Jamgön Kongtrül refers to this as "the Process of Meditation in the Indestructible Way of Secret Mantra" and also as "the way of mantra", "way of method" and "the secret way" in his Treasury of Knowledge. These Vajrayāna Buddhist practices are mainly drawn from the Buddhist tantras and are generally not found in "common" Mahayana. These practices are seen by Tibetan Buddhists as the fastest and most powerful path to Buddhahood.
In Tibetan Buddhism, the Three Jewels and Three Roots are supports in which a Buddhist takes refuge by means of a prayer or recitation at the beginning of the day or of a practice session. The Three Jewels are the first and the Three Roots are the second set of three Tibetan Buddhist refuge formulations, the Outer, Inner and Secret forms of the Three Jewels. The 'Outer' form is the 'Triple Gem', the 'Inner' is the Three Roots and the 'Secret' form is the 'Three Bodies' or trikāya of a Buddha.
The Japanese Buddhist pantheon designates the multitude of various Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and lesser deities and eminent religious masters in Buddhism. A Buddhist Pantheon exists to a certain extent in Mahāyāna. Still it is especially characteristic of Vajrayana Esoteric Buddhism, including Tibetan Buddhism and especially Japanese Shingon Buddhism, which formalized it to a great extent. In the ancient Japanese Buddhist pantheon, more than 3,000 Buddhas or deities have been counted, although now most temples focus on one Buddha and a few Bodhisattvas.
Mahāyāna is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India. It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Theravāda and Vajrayāna. Mahāyāna accepts the main scriptures and teachings of early Buddhism but also recognizes various doctrines and texts that are not accepted by Theravada Buddhism as original. These include the Mahāyāna sūtras and their emphasis on the bodhisattva path and Prajñāpāramitā. Vajrayāna or Mantra traditions are a subset of Mahāyāna which makes use of numerous tantric methods Vajrayānists consider to help achieve Buddhahood.
The Buddhist traditions have created and maintained a vast body of mythological literature. The central myth of Buddhism revolves around the purported events of the life of the Buddha. This is told in relatively realistic terms in the earliest texts, and was soon elaborated into a complex literary mythology. The chief motif of this story, and the most distinctive feature of Buddhist myth, is the Buddha's renunciation: leaving his home and family for a spiritual quest. Alongside this central myth, the traditions contain large numbers of smaller stories, which are usually supposed to convey an ethical or Buddhist teaching. These include the popular Jātakas, folk tales or legends believed to be past lives of Gautama Buddha. Since these are regarded as episodes in the life of the Buddha, they are treated here as “myth”, rather than distinguishing between myth, legend, and folk-tale.
Prajñāpāramitā Devī is a female Buddha that symbolizes and embodies Prajñāpāramitā, the perfection of transcendent wisdom. This is the highest kind of wisdom in Mahayana and Vajrayana, which leads to Buddhahood and is the spontaneous source of Buddhahood. This is the essence of the Prajñāpāramitā sutras of which there are thousands. As such, Prajñāpāramitā Devī is a samboghakaya Buddha, and is known as "Mother of Buddhas" or "The Great Mother".
The function of the Yidam is one of the profound mysteries of the Vajrayana... Especially during the first years of practice the Yidam is of immense importance. Yidam is the Tibetan rendering of the Sanskrit word Istadeva-the indwelling deity; but, where the Hindus take the Istadeva for an actual deity who has been invited to dwell in the devotee's heart, the Yidams of Tantric Buddhism are in fact the emanations of the adepts own mind.