During the pre-Columbian era, Belize formed part of the Maya Lowlands of the Maya Region of Mesoamerica.[1] Traditionally, the first-order subdivisions of the latter follow cultural or political boundaries of Preclassic, Classic, or Postclassic civilisations, eg Mayas and Aztecs. The Maya region of Mesoamerica is one such.[2] It, in turn, is further subdivided physiographically into at least three regions, ie the Maya Lowlands, Highlands, and Pacific.[3] The first of these second-order subdivisions, which fully encompassed Belize, is still further subdivided into northern, central, and southern portions, called the Northern, Central, and Southern Lowlands.[4] Belizean territory north of Indian Creek ie Nim Li Punit is often included within the Central Lowlands, fully encompassing five of Belize's districts, and an upper portion of Toledo.[5] Territory south of Indian Creek, including Nim Li Punit, is often placed within the Southern Lowlands, encompassing the central and lower portions of Toledo.[6][n 3]
History
Early
Fall of El Mirador
The onset of the Classic period in the Lowlands saw the completion of the fall and abandonment of El Mirador, which had begun in the Terminal Preclassic.[7] Having been the pre-eminent power across the central Lowlands during the Preclassic, its collapse is thought to have been felt across this sphere of influence, possibly leading to political, economic, or social distress in previously-subordinate centres, and certainly creating a power vacuum in the central Lowlands.[8]
Rise of Tikal
Tikal, and to a lesser extent various other Lowland states, promptly rose to prominence upon El Mirador's demise, with the former becoming 'the largest Classic city of the Peten region and among the largest of all Maya sites.'[9][n 4] Significantly, Tikal Stela 29, likely installed by Foliated Jaguar circa 8.12.14.8.15 (ie 6 July 292 Greg), is deemed a 'hallmark' or 'the best evidence of Tikal's emergence as the capital of an independent polity,' as it portrays the king donning various important regnal symbols, most notably a double-headed serpent bar and the capital's emblem glyph.[10]
Teotihuacan influence
From at least circa 300, Teotihuacan is thought to have begun exerting cultural, commercial, and perhaps even political influence over Tikal and the surrounding Lowlands.[11] Their influence seems to have especially increased after 8.17.1.4.12 (ie 14 January 378 Greg), the day when Siyaj K'ak' of Teotihuacan is thought to have conquered Tikal.[12][n 5] Post-conquest Tikal would then embark on a successful expansionist programme of military conquest and strategic royal marriages 'that would see it become the dominant power in the central Lowlands.'[13] The 411–456 reign of Siyaj Chan K'awiil of Tikal would apparently mark both the apogee of that city's hegemony, and the complete synthesis of local and foreign traditions.[14]
Hiatus
The late Early Classic Hiatus was a stretch of sixty years in 534–593 ie 9.5.0.0.0–9.8.0.0.0 'when few dated monuments were erected' in cities across the Central Lowlands, but most especially in Tikal, which had entered 'a time of decline and dynastic turmoil.'[15] In particular, the 562 fall of Tikal to a Calakmul-Caracol alliance is thought to have 'plunged much of the central Lowlands into a series of wars,' thereby upsetting 'the established Lowland order' and ushering in 'a whole new era in the political development of the Maya Lowlands.'[16]
Late
The Late Classic is traditionally deemed the 'apogee' of Maya civilisation.[17]
Rise and fall of Calakmul
The power vacuum left by Tikal's conquest was swiftly filled by Calakmul, judging from extant records of their alliances and military victories scattered 'throughout the Lowlands.'[18] The 636–686 reign of Yuknoom the Great marked the apogee of Calakmul's power.[19] This would nevertheless be brought to an end by Jasaw Chan K'awiil I of Tikal, whose 695 conquest of Calakmul sought to restore Tikal to its former pre-eminence.[20] This restorative programme would be completed by K'awiil I's successor, Yik'in Chan K'awiil, via a series of successful military manoeuvres in 736–744, thereby inaugurating 'the most successful k'atun in Tikal's history.'[21]
Terminal
The Terminal Classic saw the demise of 'almost all' states in the central and southern Lowlands, even as polities in the northern reaches 'continued to prosper.'[22]
Demographics
Classes
Classic Maya societies are known to have been stratified into at least two classes, ie the elite and common ones, with 'somewhat fluid' distinctions between these defined by descent, occupation, wealth, and accomplishments, among other factors.[23] Most notably, elite status was typically signalled by wealth, privilege, and supernatural associations, though an emerging non-elite middle class may have later detracted from wealth as a status-marker.[24]
Elite
The elite class constituted a small minority of the population, but have historically been the focus of Mayanist scholarship. By at least the Late Classic, the elite class are thought to have been 'internally ranked by differences in status, wealth, and power.'[25]
Non-elite
The non-elite class constituted 'the vast majority of the population.'[26] Despite this, they are 'not even mentioned' in Classic Mayan texts, and until the 2000s were heavily understudied by archaeologists.[26] Archaeological findings suggest that by the Late Classic the non-elite class were considerably stratified via the emergence of a commercially prosperous 'middle class.'[25]
Population
Average population densities of Classic Maya cities have been estimated at about 1,554 people per square mile (600 per square kilometre).[27] Additionally, settlement studies have yielded surprisingly high mean population densities for the rural central Lowlands.[28] Late Classic estimates for the upper Belize River Valley (surrounding Xunantunich) range from 881 to 1,360 inhabitants per square mile (340–525 per square kilometre), while those for the Paten central lakes area (surrounding Tikal) are about 518 per square mile (200 per square kilometre).[28] The Late Classic urban-cum-rural population of the central Lowlands is thereby estimated 'in the tens of millions of people,' and thought to have constituted 'one of the world's most densely populated preindustrial societies.'[28] The Late Classic, in particular, is thought to have marked the peak of Maya population in the Lowlands.[29]
Classic Maya astronomy has been likened to that of the Babylonian civilisation, as contrasted with that of the likes of Kepler and Copernicus.[30] In particular, stars, moons, and planets were thought to embody deities, and their observation was believed to aid in prophesying.[30]
Celestial bodies studied
The sun, moon, Venus, and the North Star are known to have been heavily studied in the Classic period.[31] There is some evidence to suggest that Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn may also have been studied or observed.[32][n 6]
Assigned and actual periods or revolutions of various celestial bodies studied by Classic Mayas in Belize.[33]
Body
Assigned Period
Actual Period
Unit
Notes
Sun
365.0000
365.2422
solar days
discrepancy noticed but not corrected
Moon
29.53020
29.53059
solar days
discrepancy possibly unnoticed
Venus
584.00
583.92
solar days
discrepancy noticed and corrected
Mars
c × 78
780
solar days
possibly; where c = an integral constant
Jupiter
–
–
solar days
possibly
Instruments and practice
Classic Maya astronomers employed 'long sight lines and horizontal markers that allowed accuracy to within less than a day in fixing the synodical or apparent revolution of many celestial bodies.'[34] Their naked-eye observatories are thought to have been placed atop elevated hills or buildings, with celestial movements noted with reference to some fixed feature on the horizon.[34][n 7] For instance, Copan Stela 10 (on an eastern hilltop) is thought to have formed part of an east-west sight line, with Stela 12 employed as the corresponding fixed feature on the western horizon, as these align with annual sunsets on 12 April.[35] Similarly, the notable E Groups in various Classic sites (first discovered in Uaxactun) are thought to have each formed three east-west sight lines possibly used 'to mark the positions of equinoxes and solstices' (via solar alignment on 21 March, 21 June, 23 September, and 21 December).[36]
Classic Maya time-keeping has been described as 'a sophisticated system of arithmetic and a series of complex calendars' producing 'endless cycles of time' which were employed by aristicratic and priestly classes for 'both mystical and practical purposes.'[37][n 8]
Units
The basic calendrical unit employed was the k'in ie the solar day.[38] These were progressively composed, usually in vigesimal steps, into further calendrical units as follows.
Calendrical units of Classic Maya time-keeping in Belize.[38][n 9]
Unit
Unit
Days
1 k'in
–
1
20 k'in
1 winal
20
18 winal
1 tun
360
20 tun
1 k'atun
7,200
20 k'atun
1 bak'tun
144,000
20 bak'tun
1 piktun
2,880,000
20 piktun
1 kalabtun
57,600,000
20 kalabtun
1 kinchiltun
1,152,000,000
20 kinchiltun
1 alawtun
23,040,000,000
Cycles
The various calendrical units were further composed into several cyclical counts, with the 260-day almanac, the 365-day year, and 52-year Calendar Round (all common to Mesoamerica) being the most popular during the Classic period.[39]
Calendrical cycles or counts of Classic Maya time-keeping in Belize.[40][n 10]
used for monumental inscriptions; start-date fixed to 0.0.0.0.0 (ie 11 Aug 3114 BC Greg); end-date fixed to 13.0.0.0.0 (ie AD 21 Dec 2012)[n 14]
Distance dates
Classic monumental inscriptions often record dates by giving a Long Count base-date and thereafter providing distance numbers ie the number of days to be counted forwards or backwards from said base-date so as to reach the desired date.[41] This is thought to have made chiselling easier, as a single (but cumbersome) Long Count date could thereby be used to easily furnish numerous other dates.[41][n 15] For instance, the Quirigua Monument 6 Stela F records a Long Count base-date of 9.16.10.0.0 (ie AD 15 March 761 Greg), and later provides a distance number in the form of an earlier Calendar Round date of 1 Ajaw 13 Yaxk'in, resulting in a well-specified date of over 90 million years ago without incurring the cost of chiselling a further Long Count date.[42]
Period-ending dates
Late Classic monumental inscriptions also record k'atun end-dates by providing only one-fifths of the Long Count date (ie the k'atun number) together with the full Calendar Round date.[43] For instance, the Long Count date of 9.16.0.0.0 (ie AD 7 May 751 Greg, marking the end-date of the sixteenth k'atun) might rather be inscribed as k'atun 16 2 Ajaw 13 Sek.[43]
Classic Maya record-keeping has been deemed 'the most detailed' out of all such Amerindian traditions, leading to an extant corpus that, though fragmented, 'is far and away the most extensive and data rich of any Native American society.'[44] Records were kept both on durable media, like stone and ceramic, and on non-durable media, like bark-paper.[45] Many examples of the former are extant and legible, while none the latter have survived in legible form.[45][n 16][n 17]
Contents of records
Until the late 20th century, most Mayanists thought Classic records 'were devoted entirely to astronomy, astrology, and calendrics, in spite of [Spanish] colonial accounts that spoke of pre-Columbian Maya histories, genealogies, medical texts, and treatises on plants and animals.'[46] With the decipherment of the Mayan script, epigraphists discovered Classic records dealing with historical events, including 'birth, death, establishment, conquest, destruction, and other fundamentals of individual and social existence,' similarly to Old World records.[47]
Language of records
Classic records from the Maya Lowlands, which represent the bulk of the surviving corpus from the period, are widely thought to have been written 'in a courtly or prestigious form of Ch'olan,' the ancestral Mayan language of present-day Ch'olti' and Ch'orti' languages.[48][n 18]
Ceramics
The Preclassic–Classic transition in the ceramic traditions of the Lowlands and wider Maya Region is traditionally marked by the widespread adoption of polychrome pottery, especially that decorated with red-and-black geometric motifs in bands laid over an orange or cream base.[49][n 19]
Economy
Our understanding of Classic Maya economy 'is far from complete,' with our only extant records on commerce being 'a few graphic depictions of tribute goods on Classic period pottery and the Bonampak murals, the [Classic] Mayan inscriptions [being] generally silent on economic subjects.'[50]
A consensus holds among scholars that kings 'commanded a sizeable workforce through corvee labour and controlled much of the production and trade in prestige goods,' but there is debate regarding the 'extent of their management of the production and distribution of food and other necessities of everyday life.'[51] For instance, while there is little evidence to suggest that the state regulated farming to any significant degree (except in Caracol), there is 'good evidence' that it likely regulated trade in foodstuffs via control of the capital's marketplaces.[52][n 20] Additionally, access to regional riverine and coasting trade were assiduously regulated and taxed by strategically located states.[53] In the central Lowlands, for instance, Tikal, Calakmul, and El Mirador are each thought to have become wealthy 'largely because of their location, which commanded east-west trade routes across the Peten.'[53] Similarly, access to rare resources in widespread demand is thought to have been tightly controlled by nearby centres, like Colha, which monopolised the good-quality flint in their environs.[53]
Society
Astrology
There is some evidence to suggest the Classic period use of a zodiac of thirteen signs or houses, each embodied by an animal, ie those recorded in pages 23 and 24 of the Paris Codex.[54]
Cosmology
Classic Maya cosmology approached that of medieval Europeans, with 'the earth as the centre of [a] universe governed by supernatural powers.'[55] Their world was 'as an ordered place, controlled by an array of deities' personified in celestial bodies (sun, moon, planets, stars).[56] Good fortune and order held while the gods were pleased with the people, whereas misfortune and unpredictable events were 'explained as the actions of vengeful deities expressing their displeasure with human failings' to observe prescribed rituals and make appropriate offerings.[56] Cycles of time, as marked by the predictable movements of celestial gods, held a place of 'central importance in the world order.'[56] That is, 'in the ancient Maya scheme of things, time itself was animate and provided the fundamental order for the universe.'[56]
Classic Maya religion is thought to have emerged from ancient shamanistic tradition, which 'can be traced back to Asia and probably arrived in the Americas with the first migrants into this new continent.'[57] The earliest Maya priests are thought to have been specialised or elite shamans, devoted 'to the management of the calendar to maintain the world order, public divination, and other rituals performed to ensure success and prosperity.'[57] As Maya society grew more complex, religion and the clergy became institutionalised, with priests differentiating themselves from shamans by exclusive recruitment from the elite class, literacy and the development of codified esoteric knowledge, and a monopoly on 'the performance of rituals for the state.'[58] This fusion of church and state was further personified in the divine king, whose 'spectatular public ceremonies' and private blood sacrifices were aimed to 'inspire awe and obedience in the populace,' protect subjects from misfortune, divine the will of gods (and thus the future), ensure the success of the state, and maintain the cosmos itself.[59]
Government
State
The size and nature of Classic states remain uncertain, with proposals ranging from a few regional-scale entities administered by centralised governments, to a multitude of small city-states with local government.[60]
The head of state and government of Classic city-states was the k'uhul ajaw or divine king, though these were sometimes beholden to foreign over- or high kings ie especially powerful patron kings in a patron–client relationship.[61][n 21] Sovereigns usually held absolute temporal authority, notably including authority to tax or claim tribute of subjects and subordinate states or settlements, to claim corvée labour, to conduct affairs with other states, to preside over ritual sacrifices of prisoners of war, and sometimes further including authority to regulate the production and distribution of certain commodities.[62][n 22] Further, a 'mantle of supernatural sanctions protected all of these powers,' as a sovereign's divine right to rule was commonly accepted and assiduously fostered by royal houses.[62] On the other hand, sovereigns were commonly held responsible for engaging and appeasing the many deities of the Maya pantheon, as this was thought necessary for the good order and fortune of the state and the wider universe.[63]
A sovereign's court or privy council is thought to have almost always been constituted by members of the royal house or other elite families.[64] Candidates may have included the heir apparent, various lords and ladies, and other non-titled elites.[64][n 23] The council in particular is thought to have been 'an ancient institution, with roots as far back as the Preclassic.'[51] Whereas the office of divine kingship peaked in the Late Classic and crumbled in the Terminal, 'the power of these governing councils increased, even becoming the ultimate authority in some polities during the Postclassic.'[51]
Other offices of state included military and ecclesiastical ones.[65] At the top of the military hierarchy (other than the sovereign) were two war captains, one hereditary and one appointed to office for three year periods, both of whom 'discussed the affairs of war and put them in order.'[65] Heading the ecclesiastical order was a high priest, charged with advising the king, keeping sacred books, training new priests, and appointing them to their respective parishes.[65]
Relations
Differences in 'resources, wealth, and military forces clearly made some kings [and their city-states] far more powerful than others' in the Lowlands, with the sovereigns of Tikal and Calakmul explicitly recognised 'as overlords by a number of rulers of less-powerful polities,' like Caracol.[66] Even as these regional powers waged wars over centuries to dominate the Lowlands, peripheral states 'attempted with varying degrees of success to avoid direct involvement in this conflict, while conducting their own versions of power politics to maintain or increase their wealth and authority.'[67] Small city-states in the Belize River Valley (like Buenavista and Cahal Pech), for instance, 'produced fine polychrome vessels in palace workshops that were used as currency to maintain alliances and trading partnerships with the royal house of Naranjo [Peten] and other kingdoms [in an attempt to avoid direct military engagement],' while those in the Mopan Valley (Peten) waged their own small game of thrones.[68]
Warfare
Classic warfare is thought to have played an increasingly crucial role in the rise or fall of a state's wealth and power.[69] As in the Preclassic, warfare early in the Classic period is thought to have been limited to small-scale raids undertaken for acquire booty, tribute, and captives for labour and sacrifice, with weaker states or settlements usually targeted (rather than stronger rival states).[70] However, as the Classic period progressed, these limited raids morphed into large-scale, intense battles, with wars being increasingly waged for military prestige.[71] Some of the most destructive and bloodiest examples of the latter were star wars, waged by powerful states against a rival state with the aim of conquering it, often via the capture of its sovereign.[71]
Classic sites in Belize and surrounding Lowlands / large, very large sites only / Uxmal+ = Uxmal, Tiho / Xunantunich+ = Xunantunich, Actuncan / A = Arenal / EM = El Mirador / G = Guaycamayo / PN = Piedras Negras / via 2010 Witschey & Brown
Prominent excavated sites in Belize with Classic artefacts, material, or structures.[72][n 24]
The earliest amateur work on Maya sites in Belize, possibly Preclassic ones, is attributed to George Henderson, a Bayman, who in 1809 published 'a tantalisingly short description of mounds along the Belize River.'[84] Site-focussed excavations were begun by Thomas Gann in 1894, and presented to the Society of Antiquaries of London on 16 May 1895.[85] However, 'the rudimentary beginnings of archaeological research were not followed by similar efforts in Belize for a good many years,' ie until 1925–1939 work by the British Museum, the Carnegie Institution, Field Museum, and J. E. S. Thompson, among others.[86][n 28]
↑ The Classic period is variously dated in literature (see Periodisation of the history of Belize for further discussion). For instance, it is dated from 250–900 or 250–1100 by Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.98, 155, 250–909 by Martin & Grube 2008, p.8, 150–900 or 300–650 by Adams & Macleod 2000a, p.11, and 150–900 by Martin 2020, p.1. However, Adams & Macleod 2000a, p.205 later place the period in 250–900 ie between Long Count dates of 8.10.10.0.0–10.4.0.0.0, based on the 'most widely accepted' calendrical correlation which equates the 11.16.0.0.0 Long Count date to 12November1539(1539-11-12).
↑ Martin & Grube 2008, p.13 use the Goodman–Martinez–Thompson correlation with a two-day addition, ie GMT+2, to convert Maya Long Count dates into Julian ones, given that said correlation 'best fits [various] diverse criteria, and is now almost universally accepted [in Mayanist scholarship].' Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.279–284 follow the GMT correlation with a 584,283 correlation constant. A calculator is available from the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies.
↑ However, alternative first-order subdivisions of the Maya region (ie second-order subdivisions of Mesoamerica) are sometimes given, eg Martin & Grube 2008, p.10 give these as Northern, Central, and Southern Areas, eg Adams & Macleod 2000a, p.200 give them as Northern Lowlands, Southern Lowlands, and Highlands (though later, in Adams & Macleod 2000a, pp.203–204, give them as Lowlands and Highlands).
↑ Other emerging states included Blackman Eddy, Caracol, Pacbitun, Uaxactun, and Calakmul (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.317).
↑ Teotihuacan influence may have arrived via Kaminaljuyu (in the Maya Highlands), rather than directly from Teotihuacan itself (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.321–322). Siyaj K'ak' may have also been from Kaminaljuyu (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.322).
↑ Namely, (i) the Dresden Codex features Martian tables, (ii) several eighth-century events in Palenque are thought to have been deliberately timed 'to coincide with auspicious positions of Jupiter,' and (iii) an Classic inscription on the Dumbarton Oaks Relief Panel 1 references Saturn (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.117–118).
↑ Though actual sighting devices, apparently used during naked-eye observations, are not extant (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.118). Such devices are represented, for instance, in the Nuttall, Selden, and Bodleian Codices (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.120, fig. 3.12).
↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.102 note that the 'elite probably guarded the full knowledge of the Maya calendar, since it was a source of great power,' though they further add that one may assume 'that even the poorest farmer had some knowledge of the basic system [of time-keeping] to guide his family's daily life.'
↑ Classic Mayan names for calendrical units are only partially known (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.102).
↑ The Native? column notes whether the cycle or count as common across Classic Mesoamerica (i.e. was not native) or common only in the Maya Region (i.e. was native). Various astronomical cycles or counts were possibly used in the Classic period, but are poorly understood in literature, and so are omitted here (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.117–118).
↑ Mayas are thought to have been aware of the Haab–solar year discrepancy of circa 0.2422 solar days, though there is no evidence showing that this was corrected (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.116).
↑ Resulting in a synodical period of circa 584.00 solar days, compared to the currently-accepted value of circa 583.92 solar days (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.117). However, Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.117 states that, though the Mayas set the period at 584 days, 'they knew that this value was a bit too long by eight-hundreths of a day' and accordingly accommodated or corrected for this discrepancy.
↑ Resulting in a lunar month of circa 29.53020 solar days, compared to the currently-accepted value of circa 29.53059 solar days (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.116).
↑ Long Count dates were usually recorded together with Calendar Round dates, thereby requiring the chiselling of ten glyphs, ie an introductory glyph, five Long Count glyphs, and four Calendar Round glyphs (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.110–112).
↑ All extant Mayan codices which are legible date to AD 1200 or later (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.120). The loss of earlier codices is often attributed, at least in part, to the Spanish conquest and subsequent inquisition, with the loss of remaining codices often blamed on neglect or the tropical environment (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.126).
↑ The courtly or prestigious form of Ch'olan used in Classic records is known as Classic Mayan (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.132). Yukatek was previously proposed as a language used in some Classic records, but the consensus now favours predominantly Ch'olan-derived Classic Mayan, with Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.132 noting that 'Ch'olan spellings, in contrast to Yukatekan, predominate in the Classic texts.'
↑ Including, for instance, Holmol I-style polychrome vessels introduced in circa AD 250 in northeastern Peten (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.294).
↑ In Caracol's territory, estimated at about 2,124 sq mi (5,500 km2) by the Late Classic, 'the unprecedented extent and density of agricultural terraces implies some degree of state management of these facilities' (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.708, 713).
↑ Classic divine kings were styled k'uhul k'antumaak in Caracol, rather than k'uuhul ajaw (Martin & Grube 2008, p.87). Overkings ie patron kings were sometimes styled kaloomte', eg as in Tikal (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.299). Heirs to the throne, titled ch'ok ajaw or baah ch'ok, are thought to have 'acquired' divinity only upon ascension to the throne (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.148, 150).
↑ Patron kings, furthermore, held authority to preside over various state ceremonies in their client states, including accession ceremonies (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.299).
↑ The heir apparent was often a son or younger brother, though non-male junior members of the royal household were not barred from the throne (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.297). Lords and ladies held, ajaw and ix ajaw titles, respectively (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.298). Subordinate offices of state may have included saja and yajaw, ie subordinate-lord and vassal-lord, respectively (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.150, 298–299).
↑ Not including various unnamed or minor Classic sites.
↑ Dates correlated using the GMT correlation and a 584283 constant as per the FAMSI online calculator, unless otherwise noted.
↑ Upper and lower temporal bounds provided, as precise dates not available (Martin & Grube 2008, p.86).
↑ The identity of the victor is uncertain, though Caracol, Calakmul ie the Snake kingdom ie the Snake polity, or both, have been suggested (Martin & Grube 2008, pp.89–90).
↑ It has been suggested that Gann's work prompted the first legislative protections for antiquities in colonial Belize in 1894, and their subsequent strengthening in 1897, 1924, and 1927.(Wallace 2011, p.25, Hammond 1983, p.22). His 1894–1936 career has been described as 'more destructive than protective of evidence from beginning to end' (Pendergast 1993, p.4). However, it has also been pointed out that his work, if judged by archaeological standards of his time, rather than by modern ones, would not be so harshly judged–though it would still be found wanting (Wallace 2011, pp.24–26).
Gann T (1895). "On Exploration of Two Mounds in British Honduras". Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Second Series. 15: 430–434. hdl:2027/uiug.30112118719803.
Hoffmeister KK (2019). The Relationship between Sociopolitical Transitions and Mortuary Behavior among the Maya in Northern Belize (PhD). Texas A&M University. ISBN9798438733836.
Henderson G (1809). An account of the British settlement of Honduras; being a view of its commercial and agricultural resources, soil, climate, natural history, &c. London: Printed by and for C. and R. Baldwin, New Bridge-Street. hdl:2027/uc1.31175035187452.
Martin S, Grube N (2008) [First published 2000]. Chronicle of the Maya kings and queens: deciphering the dynasties of the ancient Maya (2nded.). London & New York: Thames & Hudson. hdl:2027/uc1.32106019910212. OCLC47358325.
Copán is an archaeological site of the Maya civilization in the Copán Department of western Honduras, not far from the border with Guatemala. It is one of the most important sites of the Maya civilization, which was not excavated until the 19th century. The ruined citadel and imposing public squares reveal the three main stages of development before the city was abandoned in the early 10th century.
Dos Pilas is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization located in what is now the department of Petén, Guatemala. It dates to the Late Classic Period, and was founded by an offshoot of the dynasty of the great city of Tikal in AD 629 in order to control trade routes in the Petexbatún region, particularly the Pasión River. In AD 648 Dos Pilas broke away from Tikal and became a vassal state of Calakmul, although the first two kings of Dos Pilas continued to use the same emblem glyph that Tikal did. It was a predator state from the beginning, conquering Itzan, Arroyo de Piedra and Tamarindito. Dos Pilas and a nearby city, Aguateca, eventually became the twin capitals of a single ruling dynasty. The kingdom as a whole has been named as the Petexbatun Kingdom, after Petexbatún Lake, a body of water draining into the Pasión River.
Tikal is the ruin of an ancient city, which was likely to have been called Yax Mutal, found in a rainforest in Guatemala. It is one of the largest archeological sites and urban centers of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. It is located in the archeological region of the Petén Basin in what is now northern Guatemala. Situated in Petén Department, the site is part of Guatemala's Tikal National Park and in 1979 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Quiriguá (Spanish pronunciation:[kiɾiˈɣwa]) is an ancient Maya archaeological site in the department of Izabal in south-eastern Guatemala. It is a medium-sized site covering approximately 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi) along the lower Motagua River, with the ceremonial center about 1 km (0.6 mi) from the north bank. During the Maya Classic Period (AD 200–900), Quiriguá was situated at the juncture of several important trade routes. The site was occupied by 200, construction on the acropolis had begun by about 550, and an explosion of grander construction started in the 8th century. All construction had halted by about 850, except for a brief period of reoccupation in the Early Postclassic (c. 900 – c. 1200). Quiriguá shares its architectural and sculptural styles with the nearby Classic Period city of Copán, with whose history it is closely entwined.
Seibal, known as El Ceibal in Spanish, is a Classic Period archaeological site of the Maya civilization located in the northern Petén Department of Guatemala, about 100 km SW of Tikal. It was the largest city in the Pasión River region.
Calakmul is a Maya archaeological site in the Mexican state of Campeche, deep in the jungles of the greater Petén Basin region. It is 35 kilometres (22 mi) from the Guatemalan border. Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands.
Río Azul is an archaeological site of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization. It is the most important site in the Río Azul National Park in the Petén Department of northern Guatemala, close to the borders of Mexico and Belize. Río Azul is situated to the southeast of the Azul river and its apogee dates to the Early Classic period.
The Maya civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization that existed from antiquity to the early modern period. It is known by its ancient temples and glyphs (script). The Maya script is the most sophisticated and highly developed writing system in the pre-Columbian Americas. The civilization is also noted for its art, architecture, mathematics, calendar, and astronomical system.
The Preclassic period in Maya history stretches from the beginning of permanent village life c. 1000 BC until the advent of the Classic Period c. 250 AD, and is subdivided into Early, Middle, and Late. Major archaeological sites of this period include Nakbe, Uaxactun, Seibal, San Bartolo, Cival, and El Mirador.
Maya stelae are monuments that were fashioned by the Maya civilization of ancient Mesoamerica. They consist of tall, sculpted stone shafts and are often associated with low circular stones referred to as altars, although their actual function is uncertain. Many stelae were sculpted in low relief, although plain monuments are found throughout the Maya region. The sculpting of these monuments spread throughout the Maya area during the Classic Period, and these pairings of sculpted stelae and circular altars are considered a hallmark of Classic Maya civilization. The earliest dated stela to have been found in situ in the Maya lowlands was recovered from the great city of Tikal in Guatemala. During the Classic Period almost every Maya kingdom in the southern lowlands raised stelae in its ceremonial centre.
Maya cities were the centres of population of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica. They served the specialised roles of administration, commerce, manufacturing and religion that characterised ancient cities worldwide. Maya cities tended to be more dispersed than cities in other societies, even within Mesoamerica, as a result of adaptation to a lowland tropical environment that allowed food production amidst areas dedicated to other activities. They lacked the grid plans of the highland cities of central Mexico, such as Teotihuacán and Tenochtitlan. Maya kings ruled their kingdoms from palaces that were situated within the centre of their cities. Cities tended to be located in places that controlled trade routes or that could supply essential products. This allowed the elites that controlled trade to increase their wealth and status. Such cities were able to construct temples for public ceremonies, thus attracting further inhabitants to the city. Those cities that had favourable conditions for food production, combined with access to trade routes, were likely to develop into the capital cities of early Maya states.
Dzibanche is an extense archaeological site of the ancient Maya civilization located in southern Quintana Roo, in the Yucatán Peninsula of southeastern Mexico. Dzibanche was a major Maya city and the early capital and place of origin of the Kaan dynasty, a powerful Maya lineage that conquered and dominated a large territory of the central Maya lowlands during the Mesoamerican Classic period and later ruled from the great city of Calakmul.
Yax Ehb Xook, also known as Yax Moch Xok and Yax Chakte'I Xok, was the dynastic founder and ajaw of the Maya city-state of Tikal. He ruled c. 90 AD.
The Tikal–Calakmul wars were a series of wars between Tikal and Calakmul. The First Tikal–Calakmul War was the first of these wars. During this and following conflicts in Petén vassal states like Naranjo and Dos Pilas were often used. Though Yaxchilan was in the war it only had a minor presence at the beginning.
The history of Maya civilization is divided into three principal periods: the Preclassic, Classic and Postclassic periods; these were preceded by the Archaic Period, which saw the first settled villages and early developments in agriculture. Modern scholars regard these periods as arbitrary divisions of chronology of the Maya civilization, rather than indicative of cultural evolution or decadence. Definitions of the start and end dates of period spans can vary by as much as a century, depending on the author. The Preclassic lasted from approximately 3000 BC to approximately 250 AD; this was followed by the Classic, from 250 AD to roughly 950 AD, then by the Postclassic, from 950 AD to the middle of the 16th century. Each period is further subdivided:
The Preceramic period of Belizean and Mesoamerican history began with the arrival of the first Palaeoindians during 20000 BC – 11000 BC, and ended with the Maya development of ceramics during 2000 BC – 900 BC.
The Preclassic or Formative period of Belizean, Maya, and Mesoamerican history began with the Maya development of ceramics during 2000 BC – 900 BC, and ended with the advent of Mayan monumental inscriptions in AD 250.
The periodisation of the history of Belize is the division of Belizean, Maya, and Mesoamerican history into named blocks of time, spanning the arrival of Palaeoindians to the present time. The pre-Columbian era is most often periodised by Mayanists, who often employ four or five periods to discuss history prior to the arrival of Spaniards. The Columbian era is most often periodised by historians, and less often by Mayanists, who often employ at least four periods to discuss history up to the present time.
The Maya Lowlands are the largest cultural and geographic, first order subdivision of the Maya Region, located in eastern Mesoamerica.
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