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This article describes the role of women in Muisca society. The Muisca were the original inhabitants of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense (present-day central Colombian Andes) before the Spanish conquest in the first half of the 16th century. Their society was one of the four great civilizations of the Americas. [1]
Women held an important and largely egalitarian role in Muisca society. While men were responsible for hunting, warfare, and other activities, women took charge of sowing the fields, preparing food and chicha, and educating children. Both men and women participated in religious rituals. The most important deities in Muisca culture were female: Chía, the goddess of the Moon; Huitaca, the goddess of sexual liberation; and Bachué, the mother goddess of the Muisca people.
While the first chroniclers during the period of conquest and early colonization—such as Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, Pedro Simón, Juan de Castellanos and Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita—were all male, 20th- and 21st-century anthropology has seen significant contributions from women scholars. Key contributors to the understanding of women in Muisca society include Muisca scholars Ana María Groot, Marianne Cardale de Schrimpff, Sylvia Broadbent, Ana María Gómez Londoño, Martha Herrera Ángel, among others.
Following the largely pre-ceramic Herrera Period, the Muisca people settled in the valleys and high-altitude terrains of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Estimates of the population size at the time of the Spanish conquest in 1537 range from 300,000 to two million people. The Muisca were predominantly farmers and merchants, with a loosely organized political structure known as the Muisca Confederation. They practiced agriculture on simple terraces on mountain slopes and on the high plains of the Altiplano, particularly the Bogotá savanna. Their main crops included maize, potatoes, arracacha, tubers, beans, yuca, pumpkins, gourds, tomatoes, peppers, cotton, pineapples, avocadoes, tobacco, quinoa, and coca. [2] [3]
The Muisca are renowned for their highly developed art, especially their goldwork. Unlike the other three well-known civilizations of the Americas—the Maya, Aztec and Inca—the Muisca did not build grand architectural structures.
The Muisca language, Muysccubun, had several words to refer to women in different contexts. These included gui, meaning "wife" or "niece," literally "daughter of the sister of the mother"; [4] gyca, meaning "sister-in-law," literally "wife of the brother" or "sister of the husband"; [5] pabcha, meaning "niece," literally "daughter of the sister of the father"; [6] and fucha, meaning "her" or "female." [7]
In pre-Columbian societies, women played a central role in shaping the understanding of the world, structuring family and community, participating in religious life, working in the fields, and contributing to mythology, arts, and all aspects of societal organization. Women were seen as the foundation of cultural continuity, with their fertility closely linked to the abundance of Muisca agriculture. [8] They were trained in tasks such as sowing and harvesting, food preparation, textile work, ceramics, and participation in sacred ceremonies. [8]
In Muisca civilization, particularly under the Code of Nemequene, women—especially the wives of caciques—held certain rights over their husbands. [9] The Code established a system of harsh penalties intended to maintain social stability, particularly in cases of adultery, deceit, incest, and rape. [10] Muisca men were forbidden from abandoning their wives, and if a woman died while working, her husband was required to compensate her family. [9] [11] Female infidelity was punished by forcing the woman to engage with the ten least desirable men of the tribe [10] and subjecting her to periods of fasting. [12]
The wives of community leaders wore skirts that reached their ankles, while common women wore skirts that extended to their knees. [13] Maids, sometimes referred to as concubines, were called tegui. [14]
The majority of pre-Columbian cultures that once had female leaders and egalitarian conditions between men and women eventually shifted toward male-dominated leadership, largely due to the need to defend their territories. [8]
A census conducted in 1780 in Bogotá, the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, revealed that women comprised 63.5% of the city's population. Indigenous women migrated to the capital for two main reasons: to work in the households of Spanish colonizers and to seek husbands, as mestizo status offered them greater security. [15]
Muisca women played a crucial role in the organization of the family and in supporting the Muisca rulers. Children belonged to their mothers, and in matters of inheritance, property was assigned to the mother rather than the father. The new zipa and zaque were traditionally chosen from the eldest sons of the elder sister of the previous ruler, and women had the freedom to live together for a period to ensure that the relationship was successful and that they were fertile. [10] After marriage, total fidelity was expected. [2] [16]
Exceptions to the tradition of matrilineal heritage in the rule were evident in the later stages of Muisca civilization. Around the time of the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, Tisquesusa was succeeded by his brother, Sagipa. [17]
Muisca women were considered vital for transferring their fertility to the farmlands, which meant they were responsible for sowing the fields, [18] while men engaged in hunting, fishing, and warfare with neighboring groups such as the Panche. [19] Women also prepared and sold the Muisca alcoholic beverage, chicha. [8] [20] To aid in the fermentation process, they chewed on maize kernels. [21] During rituals, which could last up to fifteen days, women sang. [2] Muisca laws protected women from physical attacks and ensured that pregnant women received special treatment, which continued during the early years of motherhood and in cases of widowhood. [8] The food of the Muisca, eaten while sitting on the ground of their bohíos, was uniquely prepared by the women. [22]
Women also played an important role in the extraction of salt. [23] The Muisca, known as "The Salt People" due to their salt mines in Zipaquirá, Nemocón, and Tausa, extracted salt by evaporating brine in large pots. [24] They used the salt in their cuisine, for the preparation of dried fish and meat, and as a product in their economy. [25]
Like many other pre-Columbian cultures, the Muisca practiced polygamy. Accounts of the number of wives vary, but it was common for high-caste caciques to have up to twenty wives ( gueta ). Some sources even report that certain rulers had as many as one hundred spouses. [10] Less reliable accounts, such as those by Vicente Restrepo in the 19th century, suggest numbers as high as 300 wives. [26] Having multiple wives enabled the most prominent Muisca rulers to cultivate larger farmlands than those of lower castes. [13] When the principal wife of a cacique, zaque, or zipa died, the male ruler was required to abstain from sexual relations for five years. [10]
Virginity was not highly regarded in Muisca society; in fact, women who were virgins were often considered unattractive. An exception to this perception was made for virgins captured from neighboring indigenous groups (such as the Panche, Muzo, Lache, Guayupe, Guane, and Chitarero), who were used in ceremonies as sacrifices. [10]
In general, the practices of polygamy, the period of cohabitation before marriage, the lack of emphasis on virginity, and the resulting sexual promiscuity in pre-Columbian Colombia were very different from the norms and laws that emerged during the later Spanish colonial period. [10] [27]
In Muisca religion, as in other pre-Columbian religions in the Americas, [16] various deities were female and among the most important. The inhabitation of the Earth is explained by the mother goddess Bachué, who is said to have been born in Lake Iguaque in present-day Boyacá. [16] One of the major deities in Muisca religion was Chía, the goddess of the Moon. She was worshipped throughout the Muisca Confederation, especially in her Moon Temple in the city named after her, Chía, Cundinamarca. Chía symbolized placental life, games, and dances. [8] The rituals at Muisca temples were inclusive, with men and women participating together. [28]
The Moon Temple served not only as a place of worship but also as an educational center for new caciques and Muisca rulers, with instruction provided nearby at the Seminario de la Cuca. [29] [30] [31]
Huitaca was the rebellious goddess of arts, dance, music, [32] [33] witchcraft, and sexual liberation among the Muisca. [34] While she is sometimes equated with Chía, she is primarily regarded as a separate deity. In Muisca religion, it was Huitaca who caused the Funza River to overflow, prompting the Muisca to inhabit higher terrains on the Bogotá savanna. [17]
Cuchavira, the god of the rainbow, protected women while they worked in the fields, referred to in the Chibcha language as tá. This is reflected in many toponyms of the area today, such as Bogotá, Chivatá, Cucaita, Guayatá, Machetá, and Tota, among others. [2] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41]
According to the chronicler Bernardo de Sahagún, newborn girls were sometimes offered to the Muisca gods. This practice was accepted by the Muisca people, who viewed their gods as integral to their community and believed it ensured the fertility of their lands. [42]
A story in Muisca mythology recounts the tale of the wife of the cacique of Guatavita and her disloyalty to her husband. As punishment for her actions, the people tortured her lover, a guecha warrior, by cutting off his genitals and consuming them in a ceremonial ritual. [43] In grief, the cacique's wife jumped into the lake with her son and drowned. The cacique, mourning their deaths, ordered the retrieval of their bodies from the lake. [44]
This story formed the basis for the sacred Lake Guatavita and later inspired the legend of El Dorado , as narrated by the early Spanish chronicler Pedro Simón. [44]
The Muisca are an Indigenous people and culture of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, Colombia, that formed the Muisca Confederation before the Spanish conquest. The people spoke Muysccubun, a language of the Chibchan language family, also called Muysca and Mosca. They were encountered by conquistadors dispatched by the Spanish Empire in 1537 at the time of the conquest.
The Altiplano Cundiboyacense is a high plateau located in the Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes covering parts of the departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá. The altiplano corresponds to the ancient territory of the Muisca. The Altiplano Cundiboyacense comprises three distinctive flat regions; the Bogotá savanna, the valleys of Ubaté and Chiquinquirá, and the valleys of Duitama and Sogamoso. The average altitude of the altiplano is about 2,600 metres (8,500 ft) above sea level but ranges from roughly 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) to 4,000 metres (13,000 ft).
Guatavita is a municipality and town of Colombia in the Guavio Province of the department of Cundinamarca. Guatavita is located 75 km northeast of the capital Bogotá. It borders Sesquilé and Machetá in the north, Gachetá and Junín in the east, Guasca in the south and in the west are Tocancipá and Gachancipá.
Nemocón is a municipality and town of Colombia in the Central Savanna Province, part of the department of Cundinamarca. Nemocón, famous for its salt mine, was an important village in the Muisca Confederation, the country in the central Colombian Andes before the arrival of the Spanish. The municipality is situated in the northern part of the Bogotá savanna, part of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense with its urban centre at an altitude of 2,585 metres (8,481 ft) and 65 kilometres (40 mi) from the capital Bogotá. Nemocón is the northeasternmost municipality of the Metropolitan Area of Bogotá and the Bogotá River originates close to Nemocón. The median temperature of Nemocón is 12.8 °C. The municipality borders Tausa in the north, Suesca and Gachancipá in the east, Tocancipá and Zipaquirá in the south and in the west the rivers Checua and Neusa and the municipality of Cogua.
The Bogotá savanna is a montane savanna, located in the southwestern part of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the center of Colombia. The Bogotá savanna has an extent of 4,251.6 square kilometres (1,641.6 sq mi) and an average altitude of 2,650 metres (8,690 ft). The savanna is situated in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes.
Bacatá is the name given to the main settlement of the Muisca Confederation on the Bogotá savanna. It mostly refers to an area, rather than an individual village, although the name is also found in texts referring to the modern settlement of Funza, in the centre of the savanna. Bacatá was the main seat of the zipa, the ruler of the Bogotá savanna and adjacent areas. The name of the Colombian capital, Bogotá, is derived from Bacatá, but founded as Santafe de Bogotá in the western foothills of the Eastern Hills in a different location than the original settlement Bacatá, west of the Bogotá River, eventually named after Bacatá as well.
Sagipa or Zaquesazipa was the fifth and last ruler (psihipqua) of Muyquytá, currently known as Bogota, as of 1537. He was the brother of his predecessor Bogotá but the traditional faction of the Muisca considered him an usurper as his nephew Chiayzaque, the cacique of Chía, was the legitimate successor of Tisquesusa. His hoa counterpart in the northern part of the Muisca territory was Quiminza, the last surviving ruler of the Muisca. The daughter of Sagipa, named as Magdalena de Guatavita, married conquistador Hernán Venegas Carrillo, one of the first mestizo marriages in the New Kingdom of Granada.
Saguamanchica was the second ruler (zipa) of Muyquytá, as of 1470. His zaque enemy ruling over the northern area of the Muisca territory was Michuá.
The Muisca Confederation was a loose confederation of different Muisca rulers in the central Andean highlands of what is today Colombia before the Spanish conquest of northern South America. The area, presently called Altiplano Cundiboyacense, comprised the current departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca and minor parts of Santander.
Idacansás, Idacansas, Idacanzas or Iduakanzas was a mythical cacique who was said to have been the first priest of the sacred city of Sugamuxi, present-day Sogamoso, Colombia, then part of the territories of the Muisca. He is characterized by his great magical powers as he could make rain and hail and transmit diseases and warmth.
Huitaca or Xubchasgagua was a rebelling goddess in the religion of the Muisca. The Muisca and their confederation were a civilization who inhabited the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the Andes. Huitaca has been described by the chroniclers Juan de Castellanos in his Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias, Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita and Pedro Simón.
Muisca cuisine describes the food and preparation the Muisca elaborated. The Muisca were an advanced civilization inhabiting the central highlands of the Colombian Andes before the Spanish conquest of the Muisca in the 1530s. Their diet and cuisine consisted of many endemic flora and fauna of Colombia.
The Moon Temple of Chía was a temple constructed by the Muisca as a place of worship for their Moon goddess Chía. The temple was built in Chía, Cundinamarca, Colombia, then part of the Muisca Confederation. It was one of the most important temples in the religion of the Muisca. The temple was destroyed during the Spanish conquest of the Muisca on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense. Little is known about the temple built on the Tíquiza Hill in western Chía bordering Tabio.
The Muisca agriculture describes the agriculture of the Muisca, the advanced civilisation that was present in the times before the Spanish conquest on the high plateau in the Colombian Andes; the Altiplano Cundiboyacense. The Muisca were a predominantly agricultural society with small-scale farmfields, part of more extensive terrains. To diversify their diet, they traded mantles, gold, emeralds and salt for fruits, vegetables, coca, yopo and cotton cultivated in lower altitude warmer terrains populated by their neighbours, the Muzo, Panche, Guane, Guayupe, Lache, Sutagao and U'wa. Trade of products grown farther away happened with the Calima, Pijao and Caribbean coastal communities around the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
This article describes the economy of the Muisca. The Muisca were the original inhabitants of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the high plateau in the Eastern Ranges of central present-day Colombia. Their rich economy and advanced merchant abilities were widely known by the indigenous groups of the area and described by the Spanish conquistadores whose primary objective was the acquisition of the mineral resources of Tierra Firme; gold, emeralds, carbon, silver and copper.
The Spanish conquest of the Muisca took place from 1537 to 1540. The Muisca were the inhabitants of the central Andean highlands of Colombia before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. They were organised in a loose confederation of different rulers; the psihipqua of Muyquytá, with his headquarters in Funza, the hoa of Hunza, the iraca of the sacred City of the Sun Sugamuxi, the Tundama of Tundama, and several other independent caciques. The most important rulers at the time of the conquest were psihipqua Tisquesusa, hoa Eucaneme, iraca Sugamuxi and Tundama in the northernmost portion of their territories. The Muisca were organised in small communities of circular enclosures, with a central square where the bohío of the cacique was located. They were called "Salt People" because of their extraction of salt in various locations throughout their territories, mainly in Zipaquirá, Nemocón, and Tausa. For the main part self-sufficient in their well-organised economy, the Muisca traded with the European conquistadors valuable products as gold, tumbaga, and emeralds with their neighbouring indigenous groups. In the Tenza Valley, to the east of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense where the majority of the Muisca lived, they extracted emeralds in Chivor and Somondoco. The economy of the Muisca was rooted in their agriculture with main products maize, yuca, potatoes, and various other cultivations elaborated on elevated fields. Agriculture had started around 3000 BCE on the Altiplano, following the preceramic Herrera Period and a long epoch of hunter-gatherers since the late Pleistocene. The earliest archaeological evidence of inhabitation in Colombia, and one of the oldest in South America, has been found in El Abra, dating to around 12,500 years BP.
This article describes the warfare of the Muisca. The Muisca inhabited the Tenza and Ubaque valleys and the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the high plateau of the Colombian Eastern Ranges of the Andes in the time before the Spanish conquest. Their society was mainly egalitarian with little difference between the elite class (caciques) and the general people. The Muisca economy was based on agriculture and trading raw materials like cotton, coca, feathers, sea snails and gold with their neighbours. Called "Salt People", they extracted salt from brines in Zipaquirá, Nemocón and Tausa to use for their cuisine and as trading material.
This article describes the art produced by the Muisca. The Muisca established one of the four grand civilisations of the pre-Columbian Americas on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in present-day central Colombia. Their various forms of art have been described in detail and include pottery, textiles, body art, hieroglyphs and rock art. While their architecture was modest compared to the Inca, Aztec and Maya civilisations, the Muisca are best known for their skilled goldworking. The Museo del Oro in the Colombian capital Bogotá houses the biggest collection of golden objects in the world, from various Colombian cultures including the Muisca.
The Cabildo Mayor del Pueblo Muisca is an organisation of indigenous people, in particular the Muisca. It was established in September 2002 in Bosa, Bogotá, Colombia. The organisation, member of National Indigenous Organization of Colombia (ONIC), focuses on defending the rights of the descendants of the Muisca, and the development of cultural and historical heritage, territory and health and the linguistics of the indigenous language, Muysccubun.