Daniel Libeskind

Last updated
Daniel Libeskind
Daniel Libeskind 2011.jpg
Libeskind in front of his extension to the Bundeswehr Military History Museum in Dresden, 2011
Born (1946-05-12) May 12, 1946 (age 77)
Łódź, Poland
NationalityPolish–American
Alma mater The Cooper Union
University of Essex
OccupationArchitect
Spouse
Nina Lewis Libeskind
​
​
(m. 1969)​
Children3
Relatives David Lewis (father-in-law)
Stephen Lewis (brother-in-law)
Avi Lewis (nephew)
PracticeStudio Daniel Libeskind
Buildings Felix Nussbaum Haus
Jewish Museum Berlin
Imperial War Museum North
Contemporary Jewish Museum
Royal Ontario Museum (expansion)
One World Trade Center (2002)
The Ascent at Roebling's Bridge
Website libeskind.com

Daniel Libeskind (born May 12, 1946) is a Polish-American architect, artist, professor and set designer. Libeskind founded Studio Daniel Libeskind in 1989 with his wife, Nina, and is its principal design architect. [1]

Contents

He is known for the design and completion of the Jewish Museum in Berlin, Germany, that opened in 2001. On February 27, 2003, Libeskind received further international attention after he won the competition to be the master plan architect for the reconstruction of the World Trade Center site in Lower Manhattan. [2]

Other buildings that he is known for include the extension to the Denver Art Museum in the United States, the Grand Canal Theatre in Dublin, the Imperial War Museum North in Greater Manchester, England, the Michael Lee-Chin Crystal at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada, the Felix Nussbaum Haus in Osnabrück, Germany, the Danish Jewish Museum in Copenhagen, Denmark, Reflections in Singapore and the Wohl Centre at the Bar-Ilan University in Ramat Gan, Israel. [3] His portfolio also includes several residential projects. Libeskind's work has been exhibited in major museums and galleries around the world, including the Museum of Modern Art, the Bauhaus Archives, the Art Institute of Chicago, and the Centre Pompidou. [4]

Early life and education

Born in Łódź, Poland, Libeskind was the second child of Dora and Nachman Libeskind, both Polish Jews and Holocaust survivors. As a young child, Libeskind learned to play the accordion and quickly became a virtuoso, performing on Polish television in 1953. He won a America Israel Cultural Foundation scholarship in 1959 and played alongside a young Itzhak Perlman. Libeskind lived in Poland for 11 years and can still speak, read, and write Polish. [5]

In 1957, the Libeskinds moved to Kibbutz Gvat, Israel and then to Tel Aviv before moving to New York in 1959. [6] In his autobiography, Breaking Ground: An Immigrant's Journey from Poland to Ground Zero, Libeskind spoke of how the kibbutz experience influenced his concern for green architecture. [7]

In the summer of 1959, his family moved to New York City on one of the last immigrant boats to the United States. In New York, Libeskind lived in the Amalgamated Housing Cooperative in the northwest Bronx, a union-sponsored, middle-income cooperative development. He attended the Bronx High School of Science. The print shop where his father worked was on Stone Street in Lower Manhattan, and he watched the original World Trade Center being built in the 1960s. [8] Libeskind became a United States citizen in 1965. [9]

Daniel Libeskind was accepted at Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art and began school there in 1965 where he was taught by John Hejduk and received his professional architectural degree in 1970. [10] In 1968, Libeskind briefly worked as an apprentice to architect Richard Meier. [10] He received a postgraduate degree in history and theory of architecture at the School of Comparative Studies at the University of Essex in 1972. The same year, he was hired to work at Peter Eisenman's New York Institute for Architecture and Urban Studies, but he quit almost immediately. [11]

Career

Libeskind began his career as an architectural theorist and professor, holding positions at various institutions around the world. From 1978 to 1985, Libeskind was the director of the Architecture Department at Cranbrook Academy of Art in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. [12] His practical architectural career began in Milan in the late 1980s, where he submitted to architectural competitions and also founded and directed Architecture Intermundium, Institute for Architecture & Urbanism.

Felix Nussbaum Haus (1998), Osnabruck, Germany Asymmetrische Fenster.JPG
Felix Nussbaum Haus (1998), Osnabrück, Germany

Libeskind completed his first building at the age of 52, with the opening of the Felix Nussbaum Haus in Osnabrück, Germany in 1998. [13] Prior to this, critics had dismissed his designs as "unbuildable or unduly assertive". [14] In 1987, Libeskind won his first design competition for housing in West Berlin, but the Berlin Wall fell shortly thereafter and the project was cancelled. Libeskind won the first four project competitions he entered including the Jewish Museum Berlin in 1989, which became the first museum dedicated to the Holocaust in WWII and opened to the public in 2001 with international acclaim. [15] This was his first major international success and was one of the first building modifications designed after reunification. A glass courtyard was designed by Libeskind and added in 2007. The Academy of the Jewish Museum Berlin also designed by Libeskind was completed in 2012.

Libeskind's addition to the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto (2007) ROMCrystal3.jpg
Libeskind's addition to the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto (2007)

Libeskind was selected by the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation to oversee the rebuilding of the World Trade Center, [16] which was destroyed in the September 11, 2001 attacks. The concept for the site, which he titled Memory Foundations, was well-received upon its presentation to the public in 2003, although it was ultimately changed significantly before its execution. [17] He was the first architect to win the Hiroshima Art Prize, awarded to an artist whose work promotes international understanding and peace. Many of his projects look at the deep cultural connections between memory and architecture. [18]

Studio Daniel Libeskind is headquartered two blocks south of the World Trade Center site in New York. He has designed numerous cultural and commercial institutions, museums, concert halls, convention centers, universities, residences, hotels, and shopping centers. The studio's most recent completed projects include the MO Museum in Vilnius, Lithuania; Zlota 44, a high-rise residential tower in Warsaw, Poland; the Ogden Centre for Fundamental Physics at Durham University in Durham, England; the National Holocaust Monument in Ottawa, Canada; and Corals at Keppel Bay in Singapore, adjacent to the studio's previous completed project Reflections at Keppel Bay.

Design objects

In addition to his architectural projects, Libeskind has worked with a number of international design firms to develop objects, furniture, and industrial fixtures for interiors of buildings. He has been commissioned to work with design companies such as Fiam, [19] Artemide, [20] Jacuzzi, [21] TreP-Tre-Piu, [22] Oliviari, [23] Sawaya & Moroni, [24] Poltrona Frau, [25] Swarovski, [26] and others. [27]

Sculpture and installations

Libeskind's design projects also include sculpture. Several sculptures built in the early 1990s were based on the explorations of his Micromegas and Chamberworks drawings series that he did in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Polderland Garden of Love and Fire in Almere, Netherlands is a permanent installation completed in 1997 and restored on October 4, 2017. [28] Later in his career, Libeskind designed the Life Electric sculpture that was completed in 2015 on Lake Como, Italy. This sculpture is dedicated to the physicist Alessandro Volta.

Opera and verse

Libeskind has designed opera sets for productions such as the Norwegian National Theatre's The Architect in 1998 and Saarländisches Staatstheater's Tristan und Isolde in 2001. He also designed the sets and costumes for Intolleranza by Luigi Nono and for a production of Messiaen's Saint Francis of Assisi by Deutsche Oper Berlin. He has also written free verse prose, included in his book Fishing from the Pavement. [29]

Academia

Daniel Libeskind was the Head of Architecture at Cranbrook Academy of Art in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan from 1978-1985. During his tenure at Cranbrook he explored various themes of space, influenced by theorists like Derrida and he was part of the leading avant-garde in architecture and academia. He produced several writings, artworks and large-scale explorations, including the Reading Machine, Writing Machine and Memory Machine. [30] The machines called the Three Lessons in Architecture were displayed at the Venice Biennale in 1985 where Libeskind also won a Stone Lion award. [31] Libeskind has taught at numerous universities across the world, including the University of Kentucky, Yale University, UCLA, Harvard, the University of London, the Leuphana University Lüneburg in Germany, and the University of Pennsylvania. [9] He continues to teach students at various universities including the Catholic University of America. [32]

Criticism

Libeskind's building for the London Metropolitan University has been the subject of criticism. Libeskind LonMetUni.jpg
Libeskind's building for the London Metropolitan University has been the subject of criticism.

While much of Libeskind's work has been well-received, it has also been the subject of often severe criticism. [33] Critics often describe Libeskind's work as deconstructivist. [34] Critics charge that it reflects a limited architectural vocabulary of jagged edges, sharp angles and tortured geometries, [35] that can fall into cliche, and that it ignores location and context. [36] In 2008 Los Angeles Times critic Christopher Hawthorne wrote: "Anyone looking for signs that Daniel Libeskind's work might deepen profoundly over time, or shift in some surprising direction, has mostly been doing so in vain." [37] Nicolai Ouroussoff stated in The New York Times in 2006: "His worst buildings, like a 2002 war museum in England suggesting the shards of a fractured globe, can seem like a caricature of his own aesthetic." [35] In the UK magazine Building Design , Owen Hatherley wrote of Libeskind's students' union for London Metropolitan University: "All of its vaulting, aggressive gestures were designed to 'put London Met on the map', and to give an image of fearless modernity with, however, little of consequence." [38] William JR Curtis in Architectural Review called his Run Run Shaw Creative Media Centre "a pile-up of Libeskindian clichés without sense, form or meaning" and wrote that his Hyundai Development Corporation Headquarters delivered "a trite and noisy corporate message". [36]

In response, Libeskind says he ignores critics: "How can I read them? I have more important things to read." [39]

Work

The following projects are listed on the Studio Libeskind website. The first date is the competition, commission, or first presentation date. The second is the completion date or the estimated date of completion.

Completed

Jewish Museum Berlin (1999) JewishMuseumBerlin.jpg
Jewish Museum Berlin (1999)

Under construction

Proposed or in design

Libeskind design products

Awards and recognition

Personal life

Libeskind met Nina Lewis, his future wife and business partner, at the Bundist-run Camp Hemshekh in upstate New York in 1966. They married a few years later and, instead of a traditional honeymoon, traveled across the US visiting Frank Lloyd Wright buildings on a Cooper Union fellowship. [52] Nina is co-founder for Studio Daniel Libeskind. She is the daughter of the late-Canadian political leader David Lewis and the sister of former Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations, Stephen Lewis.

Libeskind has lived, among other places, in New York City, Toronto, Michigan, Italy, Germany, and Los Angeles. [52] He is both a U.S. and Israeli citizen. [53]

Nina and Daniel Libeskind have three children: Lev, Noam, and Rachel. [54]

Bibliography

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frank Gehry</span> Canadian-American architect (born 1929)

Frank Owen Gehry is a Canadian-born American architect and designer. A number of his buildings, including his private residence in Santa Monica, California, have become world-renowned attractions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jewish Museum Berlin</span> Jewish museum in Berlin, Germany

The Jewish Museum Berlin was opened in 2001 and is the largest Jewish museum in Europe. On 3,500 square metres of floor space, the museum presents the history of Jews in Germany from the Middle Ages to the present day, with new focuses and new scenography. It consists of three buildings, two of which are new additions specifically built for the museum by architect Daniel Libeskind. German-Jewish history is documented in the collections, the library and the archive, and is reflected in the museum's program of events.

This is a timeline of architecture, indexing the individual year in architecture pages. Notable events in architecture and related disciplines including structural engineering, landscape architecture, and city planning. One significant architectural achievement is listed for each year.

The year 1999 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.

The year 2001 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.

The year 2007 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe</span> Memorial in Berlin, Germany

The Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe, also known as the Holocaust Memorial, is a memorial in Berlin to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, designed by architect Peter Eisenman and Buro Happold. It consists of a 19,000-square-metre (200,000 sq ft) site covered with 2,711 concrete slabs or "stelae", arranged in a grid pattern on a sloping field. The original plan was to place nearly 4,000 slabs, but after the recalculation, the number of slabs that could legally fit into the designated areas was 2,711. The stelae are 2.38 m long, 0.95 m wide and vary in height from 0.2 to 4.7 metres. They are organized in rows, 54 of them going north–south, and 87 heading east–west at right angles but set slightly askew. An attached underground "Place of Information" holds the names of approximately 3 million Jewish Holocaust victims, obtained from the Israeli museum Yad Vashem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Denver Art Museum</span> Art museum in Denver, Colorado, United States

The Denver Art Museum (DAM) is an art museum located in the Civic Center of Denver, Colorado. With an encyclopedic collection of more than 70,000 diverse works from across the centuries and world, the DAM is one of the largest art museums between the West Coast and Chicago. It is known for its collection of American Indian art, as well as The Petrie Institute of Western American Art, which oversees the museum's Western art collection. The museum's Martin Building was designed by famed Italian architect Gio Ponti in 1971.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Contemporary architecture</span> Broad range of styles of 21st-century structures

Contemporary architecture is the architecture of the 21st century. No single style is dominant. Contemporary architects work in several different styles, from postmodernism, high-tech architecture and new references and interpretations of traditional architecture to highly conceptual forms and designs, resembling sculpture on an enormous scale. Some of these styles and approaches make use of very advanced technology and modern building materials, such as tube structures which allow construction of buildings that are taller, lighter and stronger than those in the 20th century, while others prioritize the use of natural and ecological materials like stone, wood and lime. One technology that is common to all forms of contemporary architecture is the use of new techniques of computer-aided design, which allow buildings to be designed and modeled on computers in three dimensions, and constructed with more precision and speed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deconstructivism</span> Postmodern architectural movement since the 1980s

Deconstructivism is a postmodern architectural movement which appeared in the 1980s. It gives the impression of the fragmentation of the constructed building, commonly characterised by an absence of obvious harmony, continuity, or symmetry. Its name is a portmanteau of Constructivism and "Deconstruction", a form of semiotic analysis developed by the French philosopher Jacques Derrida. Architects whose work is often described as deconstructivist include Zaha Hadid, Peter Eisenman, Frank Gehry, Rem Koolhaas, Daniel Libeskind, Bernard Tschumi, and Coop Himmelb(l)au.

LAB Architecture Studio was a firm of architects and urban designers based in Melbourne, Australia with international offices in London and Shanghai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reflections at Keppel Bay</span> Residential in Keppel Bay View

Reflections at Keppel Bay in Singapore is a luxury waterfront residential complex on approx 84,000 m² of land with 750m of shoreline. It was completed in 2011, offering 1129 units with a 99-year leasehold. The six distinctive curved glass towers afford panoramic views of Mount Faber and Sentosa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cecil Balmond</span> Structural engineer, artist

Cecil Balmond OBE is a Sri Lankan–British designer, artist, and writer. In 1968 Balmond joined Ove Arup & Partners, leading him to become deputy chairman. In 2000 he founded design and research group, the AGU.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Felix Nussbaum Haus</span> Art museum in Osnabrück, Germany

The Felix Nussbaum Haus is a museum in Osnabrück, Germany, which houses the paintings of German-Jewish painter Felix Nussbaum. The building also houses an exhibition space, which focuses on racism and intolerance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hélène Binet</span> Swiss-French architectural photographer

Hélène Binet is a Swiss-French architectural photographer based in London, who is also one of the leading architectural photographers in the world. She is most known for her work with architects Daniel Libeskind, Peter Zumthor and Zaha Hadid, and has published books on works of several architects.

Josef Paul Kleihues was a German architect, most notable for his decades long contributions to the "critical reconstruction" of Berlin. His design approach has been described as "poetic rationalist".

Museum architecture has been of increasing importance over the centuries, especially more recently.

Sergei Tchoban is a German Architect and artist working in various cities in Europe. He is managing director of the architectural firm TCHOBAN VOSS Architekten and founder of the Tchoban Foundation, which has been based in the Museum for Architectural Drawing in Berlin, built for this purpose, since 2013. He is a member of the Association of German Architects (BDA) and the architectural associations in Hamburg and Berlin. Tchoban is the recipient of architectural awards and a participant in various architectural exhibitions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MO Museum</span> Modern art museum in Vilnius, Lithuania

The MO Museum is a modern art museum in Vilnius, Lithuania. As a private initiative of Lithuanian scientists and philanthropists Danguolė Butkienė and Viktoras Butkus, it functioned as an art museum without walls for about ten years. The collection of 6,000 modern and contemporary pieces contains major Lithuanian artworks from the 1950s to the present day.

References

  1. ↑ Libeskind, Daniel (2004). Breaking Ground. New York: Riverhead Books. p.  88. ISBN   1-57322-292-5.
  2. ↑ Rochan, Lisa (February 28, 2003; updated April 16, 2018). "Libeskind shows genius for complexity". The Globe and Mail . Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  3. ↑ "Projects". Archived from the original on May 11, 2008. Retrieved June 12, 2008.
  4. ↑ "Exhibitions". Archived from the original on May 11, 2008. Retrieved July 29, 2008.
  5. ↑ Marek, Michael (February 18, 2010). "Architect Libeskind took unusual path to an international career". Deutsche Welle. dw.com. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  6. ↑ "Hiroshi Sugimoto-Daniel Libeskind: The Conversation" (press release). Royal Ontario Museum. May 22, 2007. Archived from the original on April 2, 2012. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  7. ↑ Breaking Ground: An Immigrant's Journey from Poland to Ground Zero By Daniel Libeskind
  8. ↑ Libeskind, Daniel (2004). Breaking Ground. New York: Riverhead Books. pp.  11, 10, 35. ISBN   1-57322-292-5.
  9. 1 2 "Studio Daniel Libeskind: Daniel Libeskind" . Retrieved June 12, 2008.
  10. 1 2 "Urban Warriors". The New Yorker . September 8, 2003. Retrieved September 1, 2021.
  11. ↑ Libeskind, Daniel (2004). Breaking Ground. New York: Riverhead Books. p.  41. ISBN   1-57322-292-5.
  12. ↑ "History - Cranbrook Academy of Art". September 11, 2018.
  13. ↑ Yu, Myung-hee (2007). Daniel Libeskind. OPUS 1946-present. South Korea: I-Park. p.  34. ISBN   978-1-57322-292-1.
  14. ↑ Pearman, Hugh (August 1, 1998). "Walls hold back the forgetting". Zeitgeist. pp. 26–27.
  15. ↑ Hooper, John; Connolly, Kate (September 8, 2001). "Empty museum evokes suffering of Jews". The Guardian. Retrieved July 19, 2018.
  16. ↑ "Voices on Antisemitism interview with Daniel Libeskind". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. September 13, 2007. Archived from the original on December 1, 2010.
  17. ↑ Dupré, Judith (2016). One World Trade Center: Biography of the Building (First ed.). New York. ISBN   978-0-316-33631-4. OCLC   871319123.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  18. ↑ "Leading architect Daniel Libeskind talks on how buildings are associated with commemoration". Oxford Brookes University. Archived from the original on 2022-10-12. Retrieved 2019-06-25.
  19. ↑ "Fiam - Daniel Libeskind". Fiamitalia.it. Archived from the original on April 18, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  20. ↑ "daniel libeskind structures paragon table lamp for artemide". Designboom.com. April 9, 2013. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  21. ↑ "Jacuzzi® and Daniel Libeskind together at Fuorisalone 2013". Jacuzzi.co.uk. Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  22. ↑ "Idea". - TreP-TrePiù (in Italian). Archived from the original on July 23, 2015.
  23. ↑ "Olivari B. - Daniel Libeskind". archive.is. June 16, 2013. Archived from the original on June 16, 2013.
  24. ↑ "Sawaya & Moroni". Sawayamoroni.com. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  25. ↑ "Poltrona Frau". Pfgroupcontract.com. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  26. ↑ "Articles - Daniel Libeskind | Atelier Swarovski". atelierswarovski.com. Retrieved July 19, 2018.
  27. ↑ "Daniel Libeskind Exhibits Six New Design Objects At Salone Del Mobile". Architizer.com. April 12, 2013. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  28. ↑ "Daniel Libeskind: Polderland Garden of Love and Fire (1997)". landartflevoland.nl. Archived from the original on July 31, 2019. Retrieved July 19, 2018.
  29. ↑ Davies, Colin. "Fishing From the Pavement – Book Reviews", "The Architectural Review", April 1998
  30. ↑ "Libeskind's Machines". Lebbeus Woods. November 24, 2009. Retrieved September 1, 2021.
  31. ↑ "Historical Archives | Gli Archi di Aldo Rossi". La Biennale di Venezia. June 13, 2017. Retrieved September 1, 2021.
  32. ↑ Hines, Mary McCarthy. "Students Learn from Master Architect Daniel Libeskind". The Catholic University of America. Retrieved September 1, 2021.
  33. ↑ Kyle MacMillian. "Pro-Libeskind forces fire back". The Denver Post . Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  34. ↑ Erbacher, Doris and Kubitz, Peter Paul. "'You appear to have something against right angles", The Guardian , October 11, 2007
  35. 1 2 Nicolai Ouroussof (October 12, 2006). "A Razor-Sharp Profile Cuts Into a Mile-High Cityscape". The New York Times . Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  36. 1 2 Curtis, William Jr. (September 21, 2011). "Daniel Libeskind (1946- ) | Thinkpiece". Architectural Review. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  37. ↑ "Slash and yearn". Los Angeles Times . June 4, 2008. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  38. ↑ Hatherley, Owen (November 7, 2013). "Whatever happened to student housing? | Analysis". Building Design . Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  39. ↑ "Daniel Libeskind: 'I'm not interested in building gleaming streets for despots'". Architects' Journal . June 20, 2013. Archived from the original on June 20, 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  40. ↑ Rago, Danielle (May 26, 2015). "Detail: The Tiles of Studio Libeskind's Vanke Pavilion". Architect Magazine.
  41. ↑ "Ogden Centre for Fundamental Physics, Durham - RIBAJ". ribaj.com. 19 May 2017.
  42. ↑ "Libeskind Tower: now under construction after the completion of Isozaki and Zaha Hadid's projects". Archived from the original on November 7, 2017. Retrieved November 6, 2017.
  43. ↑ "Downtown Tower - Libeskind". Libeskind. Retrieved October 6, 2018.
  44. ↑ "K18B – A-Class Office and Radisson RED Lifestyle Hotel Complex - Vilnius MIPIM2018". Vilnius MIPIM2018. Archived from the original on October 7, 2018. Retrieved October 6, 2018.
  45. ↑ "Daniel Libeskind unveils design for a Maggie's Centre in London". 18 July 2019.
  46. ↑ "Peres invited to advise on restoration of Vilnius synagogue", Times of Israel .
  47. ↑ "Lasvit – glass installations, sculptures and design lighting". Lasvit.com. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
  48. ↑ "General Description of the Hiroshima Art Prize". Archived from the original on September 19, 2008. Retrieved August 3, 2008.
  49. ↑ "Daniel Libeskind". April 8, 2015.
  50. ↑ University of Ulster Honours World-Leading Architect Daniel Libeskind Archived April 5, 2012, at the Wayback Machine University of Ulster News Release, November 11, 2009
  51. ↑ "Document not found". July 10, 2011. Archived from the original on July 10, 2011.
  52. 1 2 Davidson, Justin (October 8, 2007). "The Liberation of Daniel Libeskind". New York . pp. 56–64.
  53. ↑ See, Frequent Flyer. When the Wife is a Lucky Charm, Don't Leave Home Without Her. The New York Times, Tuesday, August 9, 2011, p. B6.
  54. ↑ "Jewish Museum Berlin – Daniel Libeskind". Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved February 25, 2009.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.