Electric power distribution

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A 50 kVA pole-mounted distribution transformer Polemount-singlephase-closeup.jpg
A 50 kVA pole-mounted distribution transformer

Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electricity. Electricity is carried from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2  kV and 33 kV with the use of transformers. [1] Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage used by lighting, industrial equipment and household appliances. Often several customers are supplied from one transformer through secondary distribution lines. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution lines through service drops. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the subtransmission level. [2]

Contents

General layout of electricity networks. The voltages and loadings are typical of a European network (in Canada, for example, Extra High Voltage can mean 735kV.) Electricity Grid Schematic English.svg
General layout of electricity networks. The voltages and loadings are typical of a European network (in Canada, for example, Extra High Voltage can mean 735kV.)

The transition from transmission to distribution happens in a power substation, which has the following functions: [2]

Urban distribution is mainly underground, sometimes in common utility ducts. Rural distribution is mostly above ground with utility poles, and suburban distribution is a mix. [1] Closer to the customer, a distribution transformer steps the primary distribution power down to a low-voltage secondary circuit, usually 120/240 V in the US for residential customers. The power comes to the customer via a service drop and an electricity meter. The final circuit in an urban system may be less than 15 metres (50 ft) but may be over 91 metres (300 ft) for a rural customer. [1]

History

The late 1870s and early 1880s saw the introduction of arc-lamp lighting used outdoors or in large indoor spaces, such as this Brush Electric Company system installed in 1880 in New York City. Brush Company arc light madison square new york 1882.png
The late 1870s and early 1880s saw the introduction of arc-lamp lighting used outdoors or in large indoor spaces, such as this Brush Electric Company system installed in 1880 in New York City.

Electric power distribution become necessary only in the 1880s, when electricity started being generated at power stations. Until then, electricity was usually generated where it was used. The first power-distribution systems installed in European and US cities were used to supply lighting: arc lighting running on very-high-voltage (around 3,000 V) alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), and incandescent lighting running on low-voltage (100 V) direct current. [3] Both were supplanting gas lighting systems, with arc lighting taking over large-area and street lighting, and incandescent lighting replacing gas lights for business and residential users.

The high voltages used in arc lighting allowed a single generating station to supply a string of lights up to 7 miles (11 km) long. [4] And each doubling of voltage would allow a given cable to transmit the same amount of power four times the distance than at the lower voltage (with the same power loss). By contrast, direct-current indoor incandescent lighting systems, such as Edison's first power station, installed in 1882, had difficulty supplying customers more than a mile away because they used a low voltage (110 V) from generation to end use. The low voltage translated to higher current and required thick copper cables for transmission. In practice, Edison's DC generating plants needed to be within about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) of the farthest customer to avoid even thicker and more expensive conductors.

Introduction of the transformer

The problem of transmitting electricity over longer distances became a recognized engineering roadblock to electric power distribution, with many less-than-satisfactory solutions tested by lighting companies. But the mid-1880s saw a breakthrough with the development of functional transformers that allowed AC power to be "stepped up" to a much higher voltage for transmission, then dropped down to a lower voltage near the end user. Compared to direct current, AC had much cheaper transmission costs and greater economies of scale — with large AC generating plants capable of supplying whole cities and regions, which led to the use of AC spreading rapidly.

In the US the competition between direct current and alternating current took a personal turn in the late 1880s in the form of a "war of currents" when Thomas Edison started attacking George Westinghouse and his development of the first US AC transformer systems, highlighting the deaths caused by high-voltage AC systems over the years and claiming any AC system was inherently dangerous. [5] Edison's propaganda campaign was short-lived, with his company switching over to AC in 1892.

AC became the dominant form of transmission of power with innovations in Europe and the US in electric motor designs, and the development of engineered universal systems allowing the large number of legacy systems to be connected to large AC grids. [6] [7]

In the first half of the 20th century, in many places the electric power industry was vertically integrated, meaning that one company did generation, transmission, distribution, metering and billing. Starting in the 1970s and 1980s, nations began the process of deregulation and privatization, leading to electricity markets. The distribution system would remain regulated, but generation, retail, and sometimes transmission systems were transformed into competitive markets.

Generation and transmission

Simplified diagram of AC electricity delivery from generation stations to consumers' service drop. Electricity grid simple- North America.svg
Simplified diagram of AC electricity delivery from generation stations to consumers' service drop.

Electric power begins at a generating station, where the potential difference can be as high as 33,000 volts. AC is usually used. Users of large amounts of DC power such as some railway electrification systems, telephone exchanges and industrial processes such as aluminium smelting use rectifiers to derive DC from the public AC supply, or may have their own generation systems. High-voltage DC can be advantageous for isolating alternating-current systems or controlling the quantity of electricity transmitted. For example, Hydro-Québec has a direct-current line which goes from the James Bay region to Boston. [8]

From the generating station it goes to the generating station's switchyard where a step-up transformer increases the voltage to a level suitable for transmission, from 44 kV to 765 kV. Once in the transmission system, electricity from each generating station is combined with electricity produced elsewhere. For alternating-current generators, all generating units connected to a common network must be synchronized, operating at the same frequency within a small tolerance. Alternatively, disparate sources can be combined to serve a common load if some external power converter, such as a rotating machine or a direct current converter system is interposed. Electricity is consumed as soon as it is produced. It is transmitted at a very high speed, close to the speed of light.

Primary distribution

Primary distribution voltages range from 4 kV to 35 kV phase-to-phase (2.4 kV to 20 kV phase-to-neutral) [9] Only large consumers are fed directly from distribution voltages; most utility customers are connected to a transformer, which reduces the distribution voltage to the low voltage "utilization voltage", "supply voltage" or "mains voltage" used by lighting and interior wiring systems.

Network configurations

Substation near Yellowknife, in the Northwest Territories, Canada NCPC Power Plant Yellowknife Northwest Territories Canada 08.jpg
Substation near Yellowknife, in the Northwest Territories, Canada

Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network. [10] A radial system is arranged like a tree where each customer has one source of supply. A network system has multiple sources of supply operating in parallel. Spot networks are used for concentrated loads. Radial systems are commonly used in rural or suburban areas.

Radial systems usually include emergency connections where the system can be reconfigured in case of problems, such as a fault or planned maintenance. This can be done by opening and closing switches to isolate a certain section from the grid.

Long feeders experience voltage drop (power factor distortion) requiring capacitors or voltage regulators to be installed.

Reconfiguration, by exchanging the functional links between the elements of the system, represents one of the most important measures which can improve the operational performance of a distribution system. The problem of optimization through the reconfiguration of a power distribution system, in terms of its definition, is a historical single objective problem with constraints. Since 1975, when Merlin and Back [11] introduced the idea of distribution system reconfiguration for active power loss reduction, until nowadays, a lot of researchers have proposed diverse methods and algorithms to solve the reconfiguration problem as a single objective problem. Some authors have proposed Pareto optimality based approaches (including active power losses and reliability indices as objectives). For this purpose, different artificial intelligence based methods have been used: microgenetic, [12] branch exchange, [13] particle swarm optimization [14] and non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm. [15]

Rural services

High voltage power pole in rural Butte County, California Red-tailed hawk on power pole-2033.jpg
High voltage power pole in rural Butte County, California

Rural electrification systems tend to use higher distribution voltages because of the longer distances covered by distribution lines (see Rural Electrification Administration). 7.2, 12.47, 25, and 34.5 kV distribution is common in the United States; 11 kV and 33 kV are common in the UK, Australia and New Zealand; 11 kV and 22 kV are common in South Africa; 10, 20 and 35 kV are common in China. [16] Other voltages are occasionally used.

Rural services normally try to minimize the number of poles and wires. It uses higher voltages (than urban distribution), which in turn permits use of galvanized steel wire. The strong steel wire allows for less expensive wide pole spacing. In rural areas a pole-mount transformer may serve only one customer. In New Zealand, Australia, Saskatchewan, Canada, and South Africa, Single-wire earth return systems (SWER) are used to electrify remote rural areas.

Three phase service provides power for large agricultural facilities, petroleum pumping facilities, water plants, or other customers that have large loads (three-phase equipment). In North America, overhead distribution systems may be three phase, four wire, with a neutral conductor. Rural distribution system may have long runs of one phase conductor and a neutral. [17] In other countries or in extreme rural areas the neutral wire is connected to the ground to use that as a return (single-wire earth return).

Secondary distribution

World map of mains voltage and frequencies World Map of Mains Voltages and Frequencies, Detailed.svg
World map of mains voltage and frequencies

Electricity is delivered at a frequency of either 50 or 60 Hz, depending on the region. It is delivered to domestic customers as single-phase electric power. In some countries as in Europe a three phase supply may be made available for larger properties. Seen with an oscilloscope, the domestic power supply in North America would look like a sine wave, oscillating between −170 volts and 170 volts, giving an effective voltage of 120 volts RMS. [18] Three-phase electric power is more efficient in terms of power delivered per cable used, and is more suited to running large electric motors. Some large European appliances may be powered by three-phase power, such as electric stoves and clothes dryers.

A ground connection is normally provided for the customer's system as well as for the equipment owned by the utility. The purpose of connecting the customer's system to ground is to limit the voltage that may develop if high voltage conductors fall down onto lower-voltage conductors which are usually mounted lower to the ground, or if a failure occurs within a distribution transformer. Earthing systems can be TT, TN-S, TN-C-S or TN-C.

Regional variations

220–240 volt systems

Most of the world uses 50 Hz 220 or 230 V single phase, or 400 V three-phase for residential and light industrial services. In this system, the primary distribution network supplies a few substations per area, and the 230 V / 400 V power from each substation is directly distributed to end users over a region of normally less than 1 km radius. Three live (hot) wires and the neutral are connected to the building for a three phase service. Single-phase distribution, with one live wire and the neutral is used domestically where total loads are light. In Europe, electricity is normally distributed for industry and domestic use by the three-phase, four wire system. This gives a phase-to-phase voltage of 400 volts wye service and a single-phase voltage of 230 volts between any one phase and neutral. In the UK a typical urban or suburban low-voltage substation would normally be rated between 150 kVA and 1 MVA and supply a whole neighbourhood of a few hundred houses. Transformers are typically sized on an average load of 1 to 2 kW per household, and the service fuses and cable is sized to allow any one property to draw a peak load of perhaps ten times this. For industrial customers, 3-phase 690 / 400 volt is also available, or may be generated locally. [19] Large industrial customers have their own transformer(s) with an input from 11 kV to 220 kV.

100–120 volt systems

Most of the Americas use 60 Hz AC, the 120/240 volt split-phase system domestically and three phase for larger installations. North American transformers usually power homes at 240 volts, similar to Europe's 230 volts. It is the split-phase that allows use of 120 volts in the home.

Japan's utility frequencies are 50 Hz and 60 Hz. Power Grid of Japan.svg
Japan's utility frequencies are 50 Hz and 60 Hz.

In the electricity sector in Japan, the standard voltage is 100 V, with both 50 and 60 Hz AC frequencies being used. Parts of the country use 50 Hz, while other parts use 60 Hz. [20] This is a relic from the 1890s. Some local providers in Tokyo imported 50 Hz German equipment, while the local power providers in Osaka brought in 60 Hz generators from the United States. The grids grew until eventually the entire country was wired. Today the frequency is 50 Hz in Eastern Japan (including Tokyo, Yokohama, Tohoku, and Hokkaido) and 60 Hz in Western Japan (including Nagoya, Osaka, Kyoto, Hiroshima, Shikoku, and Kyushu). [21]

Most household appliances are made to work on either frequency. The problem of incompatibility came into the public eye when the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami knocked out about a third of the east's capacity, and power in the west could not be fully shared with the east since the country does not have a common frequency. [20]

There are four high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter stations that move power across Japan's AC frequency border. Shin Shinano is a back-to-back HVDC facility in Japan which forms one of four frequency changer stations that link Japan's western and eastern power grids. The other three are at Higashi-Shimizu, Minami-Fukumitsu and Sakuma Dam. Together they can move up to 1.2 GW of power east or west. [22]

240 volt systems and 120 volt outlets

Most modern North American homes are wired to receive 240 volts from the transformer, and through the use of split-phase electrical power, can have both 120 volt receptacles and 240 volt receptacles. The 120 volts is typically used for lighting and most wall outlets. The 240 volt circuits are typically used for appliances requiring high watt heat output such as ovens and heaters. They may also be used to supply an electric car charger.

Modern distribution systems

Traditionally, the distribution systems would only operate as simple distribution lines where the electricity from the transmission networks would be shared among the customers. Today's distribution systems are heavily integrated with renewable energy generations at the distribution level of the power systems by the means of distributed generation resources, such as solar energy and wind energy. [23] As a result, distribution systems are becoming more independent from the transmission networks day-by-day. Balancing the supply-demand relationship at these modern distribution networks (sometimes referred to as microgrids) is extremely challenging, and it requires the use of various technological and operational means to operate. Such tools include battery storage power station, data analytics, optimization tools, etc.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electric power transmission</span> Bulk movement of electrical energy

Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines that facilitate this movement form a transmission network. This is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of electricity delivery, known as the electrical grid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Three-phase electric power</span> Common electrical power generation, transmission and distribution method for alternating currents

Three-phase electric power is a common type of alternating current (AC) used in electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. It is a type of polyphase system employing three wires and is the most common method used by electrical grids worldwide to transfer power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alternating current</span> Electric current that periodically reverses direction

Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that periodically reverses direction and changes its magnitude continuously with time, in contrast to direct current (DC), which flows only in one direction. Alternating current is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences, and it is the form of electrical energy that consumers typically use when they plug kitchen appliances, televisions, fans and electric lamps into a wall socket. The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, respectively, as when they modify current or voltage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mains electricity</span> Type of lower-voltage electricity most commonly provided by utilities

Mains electricity or utility power, grid power, domestic power, and wall power, or, in some parts of Canada, hydro, is a general-purpose alternating-current (AC) electric power supply. It is the form of electrical power that is delivered to homes and businesses through the electrical grid in many parts of the world. People use this electricity to power everyday items by plugging them into a wall outlet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Single-phase electric power</span> Type of electric power distribution

In electrical engineering, single-phase electric power is the distribution of alternating current electric power using a system in which all the voltages of the supply vary in unison. Single-phase distribution is used when loads are mostly lighting and heating, with few large electric motors. A single-phase supply connected to an alternating current electric motor does not produce a rotating magnetic field; single-phase motors need additional circuits for starting, and such motors are uncommon above 10 kW in rating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Power-line communication</span> Data network that uses electrical wiring

Power-line communication (PLC) is the carrying of data on a conductor that is also used simultaneously for AC electric power transmission or electric power distribution to consumers. The line that does so is known as a power-line carrier.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electric power industry</span> Industry that provides the production and delivery of electric energy

The electric power industry covers the generation, transmission, distribution and sale of electric power to the general public and industry. The commercial distribution of electric power started in 1882 when electricity was produced for electric lighting. In the 1880s and 1890s, growing economic and safety concerns lead to the regulation of the industry. What was once an expensive novelty limited to the most densely populated areas, reliable and economical electric power has become an essential aspect for normal operation of all elements of developed economies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Utility frequency</span> Frequency used on standard electricity grid in a given area

The utility frequency, (power) line frequency or mains frequency is the nominal frequency of the oscillations of alternating current (AC) in a wide area synchronous grid transmitted from a power station to the end-user. In large parts of the world this is 50 Hz, although in the Americas and parts of Asia it is typically 60 Hz. Current usage by country or region is given in the list of mains electricity by country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Railway electrification</span> Conversion of railways to use electricity for propulsion

Railway electrification is the use of electric power for the propulsion of rail transport. Electric railways use either electric locomotives, electric multiple units or both. Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient generating stations, transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains. Some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and transmission lines, but most purchase power from an electric utility. The railway usually provides its own distribution lines, switches, and transformers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Power engineering</span> Subfield of electrical engineering

Power engineering, also called power systems engineering, is a subfield of electrical engineering that deals with the generation, transmission, distribution, and utilization of electric power, and the electrical apparatus connected to such systems. Although much of the field is concerned with the problems of three-phase AC power – the standard for large-scale power transmission and distribution across the modern world – a significant fraction of the field is concerned with the conversion between AC and DC power and the development of specialized power systems such as those used in aircraft or for electric railway networks. Power engineering draws the majority of its theoretical base from electrical engineering and mechanical engineering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Grid (Great Britain)</span> High-voltage electric power transmission network in Great Britain

The National Grid is the high-voltage electric power transmission network supporting the UK's electricity market, connecting power stations and major substations, and ensuring that electricity generated anywhere on the grid can be used to satisfy demand elsewhere. The network serves the majority of Great Britain and some of the surrounding islands. It does not cover Northern Ireland, which is part of the Irish single electricity market.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electricity meter</span> Device used to measure electricity use

An electricity meter, electric meter, electrical meter, energy meter, or kilowatt-hour meter is a device that measures the amount of electric energy consumed by a residence, a business, or an electrically powered device over a time interval.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Traction power network</span> Electricity grid for the supply of electrified rail networks

A traction network or traction power network is an electricity grid for the supply of electrified rail networks. The installation of a separate traction network generally is done only if the railway in question uses alternating current (AC) with a frequency lower than that of the national grid, such as in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">15 kV AC railway electrification</span> Standard current and voltage settings for much of Central Europes train transport

Railway electrification using alternating current (AC) at 15 kilovolts (kV) and 16.7 hertz (Hz) are used on transport railways in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, and Norway. The high voltage enables high power transmission with the lower frequency reducing the losses of the traction motors that were available at the beginning of the 20th century. Globally, railway electrification in late 20th century tends to use 25 kV, 50 Hz AC systems which has become the preferred standard for new railway electrifications. Nevertheless, local extensions of the existing 15 kV network is commonplace. In particular, the Gotthard Base Tunnel uses 15 kV, 16.7 Hz electrification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phasor measurement unit</span> Device measuring electrical waves on a power grid

A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is a device used to estimate the magnitude and phase angle of an electrical phasor quantity in the electricity grid using a common time source for synchronization. Time synchronization is usually provided by GPS or IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol, which allows synchronized real-time measurements of multiple remote points on the grid. PMUs are capable of capturing samples from a waveform in quick succession and reconstructing the phasor quantity, made up of an angle measurement and a magnitude measurement. The resulting measurement is known as a synchrophasor. These time synchronized measurements are important because if the grid’s supply and demand are not perfectly matched, frequency imbalances can cause stress on the grid, which is a potential cause for power outages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electric power system</span> Network of electrical component deployed to generate, transmit & distribute electricity

An electric power system is a network of electrical components deployed to supply, transfer, and use electric power. An example of a power system is the electrical grid that provides power to homes and industries within an extended area. The electrical grid can be broadly divided into the generators that supply the power, the transmission system that carries the power from the generating centers to the load centers, and the distribution system that feeds the power to nearby homes and industries.

Electric power transmission, the tools and means of moving electricity far from where it is generated, date back to the late 19th century. They include the movement of electricity in bulk and the delivery of electricity to individual customers ("distribution"). In the beginning, the two terms were used interchangeably.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrical grid</span> Interconnected network for delivering electricity to consumers

An electrical grid is an interconnected network for electricity delivery from producers to consumers. Electrical grids consist of power stations, electrical substations to step voltage up or down, electric power transmission to carry power over long distances, and finally electric power distribution to customers. In that last step, voltage is stepped down again to the required service voltage. Power stations are typically built close to energy sources and far from densely populated areas. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents. From small to large there are microgrids, wide area synchronous grids, and super grids. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of electricity delivery, known as the power grid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">EA Networks</span> New Zealand electricity distribution company

Electricity Ashburton Limited, trading as EA Networks is a co-operatively-owned electricity distribution company, based in Ashburton, New Zealand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Single-phase generator</span>

Single-phase generator is an alternating current electrical generator that produces a single, continuously alternating voltage. Single-phase generators can be used to generate power in single-phase electric power systems. However, polyphase generators are generally used to deliver power in three-phase distribution system and the current is converted to single-phase near the single-phase loads instead. Therefore, single-phase generators are found in applications that are most often used when the loads being driven are relatively light, and not connected to a three-phase distribution, for instance, portable engine-generators. Larger single-phase generators are also used in special applications such as single-phase traction power for railway electrification systems.

References

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  15. ↑ Tomoiagă, Bogdan; Chindriş, Mircea; Sumper, Andreas; Sudria-Andreu, Antoni; Villafafila-Robles, Roberto (2013). "Pareto Optimal Reconfiguration of Power Distribution Systems Using a Genetic Algorithm Based on NSGA-II". Energies. 6 (3): 1439–1455. doi: 10.3390/en6031439 . hdl: 2117/18257 .
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