Electric energy consumption

Last updated
Electricity consumption by region. By 2025, Asia is projected to account for half of the world's electricity consumption, with one-third of global electricity to be consumed in China. 1990- Electricity consumption - shares by region - IEA data.svg
Electricity consumption by region. By 2025, Asia is projected to account for half of the world’s electricity consumption, with one-third of global electricity to be consumed in China.

Electric energy consumption is energy consumption in the form of electrical energy. [2] About a fifth of global energy is consumed as electricity: for residential, industrial, commercial, transportation and other purposes. [2] The global electricity consumption in 2022 was 24,398 terawatt-hour (TWh), almost exactly three times the amount of consumption in 1981 (8,132 TWh). [3] China, the United States, and India accounted for more than half of the global share of electricity consumption. Japan and Russia followed with nearly twice the consumption of the remaining industrialized countries. [3]

Contents

Overview

Electric energy is most often measured either in joules (J), or in watt hours (W·h). [4]

1 W·s = 1 J
1 W·h = 3,600 W·s = 3,600 J
1 kWh = 3,600 kWs = 1,000 Wh = 3.6 million W·s = 3.6 million J

Electric and electronic devices consume electric energy to generate desired output (light, heat, motion, etc.). During operation, some part of the energy is lost depending on the electrical efficiency. [5]

Electricity has been generated in power stations since 1882. [6] The invention of the steam turbine in 1884 to drive the electric generator led to an increase in worldwide electricity consumption. [7]

In 2022, the total worldwide electricity production was nearly 29,000 TWh. [8] Total primary energy is converted into numerous forms, including, but not limited to, electricity, heat and motion. [9] Some primary energy is lost during the conversion to electricity, as seen in the United States, where a little more than 60% was lost in 2022. [9]

Electricity accounted for more than 20% of worldwide final energy consumption in 2022, with oil being less than 40%, coal being less than 9%, natural gas being less than 15%, biofuels and waste less than 10%, and other sources (such as heat, solar electricity, wind electricity and geothermal) being more than 5%. [10] The total final electricity consumption in 2022 was split unevenly between the following sectors: industry (42.2%), residential (26.8%), commercial and public services (21.1%), transport (1.8%), and other (8.1%; i.e., agriculture and fishing). [10] In 1981, the final electricity consumption continued to decrease in the industrial sector and increase in the residential, commercial and public services sectors. [10]

A sensitivity analysis on an adaptive neuro-fuzzy network model for electric demand estimation shows that employment is the most critical factor influencing electrical consumption. [11] The study used six parameters as input data, employment, GDP, dwelling, population, heating degree day and cooling degree day, with electricity demand as output variable. [11]

World electricity consumption

The table lists 45 electricity-consuming countries, which used about 22,000 TWh. These countries comprise about 90% of the final consumption of 190+ countries. The final consumption to generate this electricity is provided for every country. The data is from 2022. [8] [12]

In 2022, OECD's final electricity consumption was over 10,000 TWh. [3] In that year, the industrial sector consumed about 42.2% of the electricity, with the residential sector consuming nearly 26.8%, the commercial and public services sectors consuming about 21.1%, the transport sector consuming nearly 1.8%, and the other sectors (such as agriculture and fishing) consuming nearly 8.1%. [10] In recent decades, the consumption in the residential and commercial and public services sectors has grown, while the industry consumption has declined. [3] More recently, the transport sector has witnessed an increase in consumption with the growth in the electric vehicle market. [3]

Rank (2022 data)CountryFinal consumption
(TWh)
Population
(millions)
Per capita consumption
(MWh)
WORLD24,3987,9603.07
1Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 7,2141,4435
2Flag of the United States.svg  United States 4,27233612.71
3Flag of India.svg  India 1,4031,4011
4Flag of Japan.svg  Japan 1,1321268.98
5Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 9341466.4
6Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada 59538.115.62
7Flag of South Korea.svg  South Korea 55351.210.8
8Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil 5502152.56
9Flag of Germany.svg  Germany 53982.26.55
10Flag of France.svg  France 46367.76.84
11Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg  Saudi Arabia 317368.81
12Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom 31268.44.56
13Flag of Indonesia.svg  Indonesia 3082761.17
14Flag of Italy.svg  Italy 300605
15Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico 2961272.33
16Flag of Iran.svg  Iran 28083.33.36
17Flag of Turkey.svg  Turkey 264843.14
18Flag of the Republic of China.svg  Taiwan 25723.8 [13] 10.8
19Flag of Spain.svg  Spain 24646.85.26
20Flag of South Africa.svg  South Africa 233603.88
21Flag of Australia (converted).svg  Australia 225268.65
22Flag of Vietnam.svg  Vietnam 2201002.2
23Flag of Thailand.svg  Thailand 203702.9
24Flag of Malaysia.svg  Malaysia 17033.25.12
25Flag of Egypt.svg  Egypt 1681051.6
26Flag of Poland.svg  Poland 15637.54.17
27Flag of Ukraine.svg  Ukraine 15443.23.56
28Flag of Sweden.svg  Sweden 14710.214.4
29Flag of Argentina.svg  Argentina 138463
30Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg  United Arab Emirates 13610.213.33
31Flag of Norway.svg  Norway 1285.523.27
32Flag of Pakistan.svg  Pakistan 1242260.55
33Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands 12017.56.86
34Flag of Belgium (civil).svg  Belgium 9811.88.33
35Flag of Finland.svg  Finland 905.616.03
36Flag of Chile.svg  Chile 8419.24.38
37Flag of Kazakhstan.svg  Kazakhstan 7518.74
38Flag of Austria.svg  Austria 739.18.02
39Flag of Venezuela.svg  Venezuela 7228.12.56
40Flag of Algeria.svg  Algeria 66441.5
41Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg   Switzerland 629.36.67
42Flag of Israel.svg  Israel 599.46.27
43Flag of New Zealand.svg  New Zealand 4358.6
44Flag of Denmark.svg  Denmark 355.86.02
45Flag of Ireland.svg  Ireland 285.55.1

Consumption per capita

The final consumption divided by the number of inhabitants provides a country's consumption per capita. In Western Europe, this is between 4 and 8 MWh/year. [8] (1 MWh = 1,000 kWh) In Scandinavia, the United States, Canada, Taiwan, South Korea, Australia, Japan and the United Kingdom, the per capita consumption is higher; however, in developing countries, it is much lower. [8] The world's average was about 3 MWh/year in 2022. [8] Very low consumption levels, such as those in Philippines, not included in the table, indicate that many inhabitants are not connected to the electricity grid, and that is the reason why some of the world's most populous countries, incl. Nigeria and Bangladesh, do not appear in the table. [12]

Electricity generation and GDP

The table lists 30 countries, which represent about 76% of the world population, 84% of the world GDP, and 85% of the world electricity generation. [8] [12] [14] [15] Productivity per electricity generation (concept similar to energy intensity) can be measured by dividing GDP over the electricity generated. The data is from 2019. [8] [12] [14] [15]

Electricity generation (2019) and GDP (PPP) (2019)
CountryPopulation,
millions
rank*GDP (PPP),
billions (USD)
rank*GDP (PPP)
per capita
rank*Electricity
generation
(GWh/yr)
rank*GDP (PPP)
/kWh*
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 1,4071$14,2802$10,149157,503,4281$1.9
Flag of India.svg  India 1,3662$2,8716$2,102261,603,6753$1.8
Flag of the United States.svg  USA 3283$21,4331$65,34514,411,1592$4.9
Flag of Indonesia.svg  Indonesia 270.64$1,11916$4,13520278,94217$4.0
Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil 2116$1,8789$8,90018626,3287$3.0
Flag of Pakistan.svg  Pakistan 216.65$27926$1,28828138,62624$2.0
Flag of Bangladesh.svg  Bangladesh 1638$30225$1,8532789,67227$3.4
Flag of Nigeria.svg  Nigeria 2017$44822$2,2292533,552 [16] 28$13.4
Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 1449$1,68711$11,715141,118,1434$1.5
Flag of Japan.svg  Japan 12611$5,1493$40,86571,030,2865$5.0
Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico 127.610$1,26915$9,94516322,58413$3.9
Flag of the Philippines.svg  Philippines 10813$37723$3,49121106,04126$3.6
Flag of Vietnam.svg  Vietnam 96.515$26227$2,71524227,46121$1.2
Flag of Ethiopia.svg  Ethiopia 11212$9629$8572914,553 [17] 29$6.6
Flag of Egypt.svg  Egypt 100.414$30324$3,01823200,56322$1.5
Flag of Germany.svg  Germany 8318$3,8884$46,8434609,4068$6.4
Flag of Turkey.svg  Turkey 83.517$76119$9,11417303,89815$2.5
Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.svg  DR Congo 86.816$5030$576309,990 [18] 30$5.0
Flag of Iran.svg  Iran 8319$25828$3,10822318,69614$0.8
Flag of Thailand.svg  Thailand 69.620$54421$7,81619186,50323$2.9
Flag of France.svg  France 67.321$2,7297$40,5508562,84210$4.8
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  UK 66.822$2,8795$43,0996324,76112$8.9
Flag of Italy.svg  Italy 59.723$2,0098$33,6529293,85316$6.8
Flag of South Korea.svg  South Korea 51.724$1,65112$31,93410585,3019$2.8
Flag of Spain.svg  Spain 47.125$1,39313$29,57511267,50119$5.2
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada 37.626$1,74210$46,3305648,6766$2.7
Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg  Saudi Arabia 34.327$79318$23,12013343,66111$2.3
Flag of the Republic of China.svg  Taiwan 23.6 [13] 28$605 [19] 20$25,63612274,05918$2.2
Flag of Australia (converted).svg  Australia 25.429$1,39214$54,8032265,90120$5.2
Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands 17.330$91017$52,6013121,06225$7.5
World7,683$87,555$11,39527,044,191$3.5
  • Population data is from the World Bank [12]
  • GDP data is from the World Bank [14]
  • Electricity data is from BP Global [15]
  • rank* of Population, GDP, and Electricity generation are rankings within this list
  • GDP (PPP) / kWh is the amount of GDP (PPP) (USD) produced per kilowatt-hour

Electricity consumption by sector

The table below lists the 15 countries with the highest final electricity consumption, which comprised more than 70% of the global consumption in 2022. [8]

Electricity final consumption by sector (2022)
Country/ Geographical regionTotal
(TWh)
IndustryTransportCommercial
/Public
services
ResidentialAgriculture

/Forestry

Other
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 7,21459.9%2.4%7.3%16.4%2.2%11.8%
Flag of the United States.svg  United States 4,27219.9%0.6%35.2%37.4%2.1%4.8%
Flag of India.svg  India 1,40337.7%11.2%7.8%21.7%15.9%5.7%
Flag of Japan.svg  Japan 1,13237%1.8%33.7%27.1%0.3%0.1%
Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 93444.8%11.1%20.4%21.1%2.5%0.1%
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada 59535.9%1.5%28.1%32.5%2.0%0%
Flag of South Korea.svg  South Korea 55352.3%0.6%31.4%12.7%2.5%0.5%
Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil 55038.3%0.7%27.3%27.7%6%0%
Flag of Germany.svg  Germany 53944.8%2.3%26.4%25.4%1.1%0%
Flag of France.svg  France 46326.9%2.4%31.5%37%1.9%0.3%
Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg  Saudi Arabia 31733.7%3.9%28.3%25%4.1%5%
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom 31218.3%2.2%38.2%39.1%2%0.2%
Flag of Italy.svg  Italy 30030%5%32%30%1%2%
Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico 29629%4%33%30%3%1%
Flag of Iran.svg  Iran 28024%6%37%25%5%3%
World24,39842.2%1.8%21.1%26.8%3.1%5%

Electricity outlook

Looking forward, increasing energy efficiency will result in less electricity needed for a given demand in power, but demand will increase strongly on the account of: [20]

The International Energy Agency expects revisions of subsidies for fossil fuels which amounted to $550 billion in 2013, more than four times renewable energy subsidies. In this scenario, [21] almost half of the increase in 2040 of electricity consumption is covered by more than 80% growth of renewable energy. Many new nuclear plants will be constructed, mainly to replace old ones. The nuclear part of electricity generation will increase from 11 to 12%. The renewable part goes up much more, from 21 to 33%. The IEA warns that in order to restrict global warming to 2 °C, carbon dioxide emissions [22] must not exceed 1000 gigaton (Gt) from 2014. This limit is reached in 2040 and emissions will not drop to zero ever.

The World Energy Council [23] sees world electricity consumption increasing to more than 40,000 TWh/a in 2040. The fossil part of generation depends on energy policy. It can stay around 70% in the so-called Jazz scenario where countries rather independently "improvise" but it can also decrease to around 40% in the Symphony scenario if countries work "orchestrated" for more climate friendly policy. Carbon dioxide emissions, 32 Gt/a in 2012, will increase to 46 Gt/a in Jazz but decrease to 26 Gt/a in Symphony. Accordingly, until 2040 the renewable part of generation will stay at about 20% in Jazz but increase to about 45% in Symphony.

An EU survey conducted on climate and energy consumption in 2022 found that 63% of people in the European Union want energy costs to be dependent on use, with the greatest consumers paying more. This is compared to 83% in China, 63% in the UK and 57% in the US. [24] [25] 24% of Americans surveyed believing that people and businesses should do more to cut their own usage (compared to 20% in the UK, 19% in the EU, and 17% in China). [26] [27]

Nearly half of those polled in the European Union (47%) and the United Kingdom (45%) want their government to focus on the development of renewable energies. This is compared to 37% in both the United States and China when asked to list their priorities on energy. [26] [28] [29]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Japan</span>

Japan is a major consumer of energy, ranking fifth in the world by primary energy use. Fossil fuels accounted for 88% of Japan's primary energy in 2019. Japan imports most of its energy due to scarce domestic resources. As of 2022, the country imports 97% of its oil and is the larger liquefied natural gas (LNG) importer globally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in the United Kingdom</span>

Energy in the United Kingdom came mostly from fossil fuels in 2021. Total energy consumption in the United Kingdom was 142.0 million tonnes of oil equivalent in 2019. In 2014, the UK had an energy consumption per capita of 2.78 tonnes of oil equivalent compared to a world average of 1.92 tonnes of oil equivalent. Demand for electricity in 2023 was 29.6 GW on average, supplied through 235 TWh of UK-based generation and 24 TWh of energy imports.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in the United States</span>

Energy in the United States is obtained from a diverse portfolio of sources, although the majority came from fossil fuels in 2023, as 38% of the nation's energy originated from petroleum, 36% from natural gas, and 9% from coal. Electricity from nuclear power supplied 9% and renewable energy supplied 9%, which includes biomass, wind, hydro, solar and geothermal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Iran</span>

Iran possesses significant energy reserves, holding the position of the world's third-largest in proved oil reserves and the second-largest in natural gas reserves as of 2021. At the conclusion of the same year, Iran's share comprised 24% of the oil reserves in the Middle East and 12% of the worldwide total.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wind power in Sweden</span>

Sweden has a total of 16.4 GW of wind power capacity at the end of 2023, the 5th highest in Europe and most per capita. Wind power produced 20.9% of national electricity generation in 2023, up from 0.3% in 2000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Renewable energy in Spain</span>

Renewable energy in Spain, comprising bioenergy, wind, solar, and hydro sources, accounted for 15.0% of the Total Energy Supply (TES) in 2019. Oil was the largest contributor at 42.4% of the TES, followed by gas, which made up 25.4%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Mexico</span>

Energy in Mexico describes energy, fuel, and electricity production, consumption and import in Mexico.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Finland</span>

Energy in Finland describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Finland. Energy policy of Finland describes the politics of Finland related to energy. Electricity sector in Finland is the main article regarding electricity in Finland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Switzerland</span>

Energy in Switzerland is transitioning towards sustainability, targeting net zero emissions by 2050 and a 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030.

The United States has the second largest electricity sector in the world, with 4,178 Terawatt-hours of generation in 2023. In 2023 the industry earned $491b in revenue at an average price of $0.127/kWh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electricity sector in Denmark</span> Overview of the electricity sector in Denmark

Denmark's western electrical grid is part of the Synchronous grid of Continental Europe whereas the eastern part is connected to the Synchronous grid of Northern Europe via Sweden.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electricity sector in Switzerland</span> Overview of the electricity sector in Switzerland

The electricity sector in Switzerland relies mainly on hydroelectricity, since the Alps cover almost two-thirds of the country's land mass, providing many large mountain lakes and artificial reservoirs suited for hydro power. In addition, the water masses drained from the Swiss Alps are intensively used by run-of-the-river hydroelectricity (ROR). With 9,052 kWh per person in 2008, the country's electricity consumption is relatively high and was 22% above the European Union's average.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Poland</span>

The Polish energy sector is the fifth largest in Europe. By the end of 2023, the installed generation capacity had reached 55.216 GW, while electricity consumption for that year was 167.52 TWh and generation was 163.63 TWh, with 26% of this coming from renewables.

Energy in Algeria encompasses the production, consumption, and import of energy. As of 2009, the primary energy use in Algeria was 462 TWh, with a per capita consumption of 13 TWh. Algeria is a significant producer and exporter of oil and gas and has been a member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) since 1969. It also participates in the OPEC+ agreement, collaborating with non-OPEC oil-producing nations. Historically, the country has relied heavily on fossil fuels, which are heavily subsidized and constitute the majority of its energy consumption. In response to global energy trends, Algeria updated its Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Development Plan in 2015, aiming for significant advancements by 2030. This plan promotes the deployment of large-scale renewable technologies, such as solar photovoltaic systems and onshore wind installations, supported by various incentive measures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Sweden</span>

Energy in Sweden is characterized by relatively high per capita production and consumption, and a reliance on imports for fossil fuel supplies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Belarus</span>

Energy in Belarus describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Belarus. Belarus is a net energy importer. According to IEA, the energy import vastly exceeded the energy production in 2015, describing Belarus as one of the world's least energy sufficient countries in the world. Belarus is very dependent on Russia.

Energy in Luxembourg describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in Luxembourg. Electricity sector in Luxembourg is the main article of electricity in Luxembourg.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electricity in Turkey</span> Electricity generation, transmission and consumption in Turkey

Turkey uses more electricity per person than the global average, but less than the European average, with demand peaking in summer due to air conditioning. Most electricity is generated from coal, gas and hydropower, with hydroelectricity from the east transmitted to big cities in the west. Electricity prices are state-controlled, but wholesale prices are heavily influenced by the cost of imported gas.

Denmark is a leading country in renewable energy production and usage. Renewable energy sources collectively produced 81% of Denmark's electricity generation in 2022, and are expected to provide 100% of national electric power production from 2030. Including energy use in the heating/cooling and transport sectors, Denmark is expected to reach 100% renewable energy in 2050, up from the 34% recorded in 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">World energy supply and consumption</span> Global production and usage of energy

World energy supply and consumption refers to the global supply of energy resources and its consumption. The system of global energy supply consists of the energy development, refinement, and trade of energy. Energy supplies may exist in various forms such as raw resources or more processed and refined forms of energy. The raw energy resources include for example coal, unprocessed oil & gas, uranium. In comparison, the refined forms of energy include for example refined oil that becomes fuel and electricity. Energy resources may be used in various different ways, depending on the specific resource, and intended end use. Energy production and consumption play a significant role in the global economy. It is needed in industry and global transportation. The total energy supply chain, from production to final consumption, involves many activities that cause a loss of useful energy.

References

  1. "Electricity Market Report 2023" (PDF). IEA.org. International Energy Agency. February 2023. p. 15. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 March 2023. Licensed CC BY 4.0.
  2. 1 2 "Electricity explained: Use of electricity - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Archived from the original on 2019-09-16. Retrieved 2022-01-22.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 "Electricity consumption – Electricity Information: Overview – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 2022-01-22.
  4. "Energy Units". www.aps.org. Retrieved 2022-01-23.
  5. "Electricity – Sustainable Recovery – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 2022-02-10.
  6. "Electricity Generation". Institute for Energy Research. Institute for Energy Research. 2 September 2014. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
  7. "Catalog of CHP Technologies: Section 4. Technology Characterization – Steam Turbines" (PDF). www.epa.gov. March 2015. Retrieved January 23, 2022.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Data tables – Data & Statistics". IEA. Archived from the original on 2022-01-19. Retrieved 2022-01-25.
  9. 1 2 "More than 60% of energy used for electricity generation is lost in conversion - Today in Energy - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Retrieved 2022-02-10.
  10. 1 2 3 4 "Key World Energy Statistics 2021 – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 2022-02-16.
  11. 1 2 Zahedi, Gholamreza; Azizi, Saeed; Bahadori, Alireza; Elkamel, Ali; R. Wan Alwi, Sharifah (2013). "Electricity demand estimation using an adaptive neuro-fuzzy network: A case study from the Ontario province – Canada". Energy. 49: 323–328. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2012.10.019.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 "Population, total | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2022-01-25.
  13. 1 2 "National Statistics, Republic of China (Taiwan)". eng.stat.gov.tw. Retrieved 2022-01-25.
  14. 1 2 3 "GDP (current US$) | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2022-02-02.
  15. 1 2 3 "Statistical Review of World Energy | Energy economics | Home". bp global. Retrieved 2022-02-03.
  16. "Energy Profile: Nigeria" (PDF). International Renewable Energy Agency. September 29, 2021. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
  17. "Energy Profile: Ethiopia". International Renewable Energy Agency. September 29, 2021. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
  18. "Energy Profile: Democratic Republic of the Congo" (PDF). International Renewable Energy Agency. September 29, 2021. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
  19. "National Statistics, Republic of China (Taiwan)". eng.stat.gov.tw. Retrieved 2022-02-02.
  20. 1 2 3 "World Energy Outlook 2021 – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 2022-02-23.
  21. IEA World energy outlook
  22. by fossil fuel
  23. World energy scenarios
  24. "2022-2023 EIB Climate Survey, part 1 of 2: Majority of Europeans say the war in Ukraine and high energy prices should accelerate the green transition". EIB.org. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
  25. "Energy poverty". energy.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
  26. 1 2 "2022-2023 EIB Climate Survey, part 1 of 2: Majority of Europeans say the war in Ukraine and high energy prices should accelerate the green transition". EIB.org. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
  27. "Energy efficiency directive". energy.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
  28. ""Fit for 55": Council agrees on higher targets for renewables and energy efficiency". www.consilium.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
  29. "Share of energy consumption from renewable sources in Europe". www.eea.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-11-17.