Liberalism in Brazil

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Liberalism in Brazil refers to a set of political ideas and parties that, since the nineteenth century, have advocated constitutional government, representative institutions, individual rights, and—at varying times—decentralisation and market-oriented economic policy. In the imperial era, self-described liberals (known as luzias) opposed centralising conservatives (saquaremas) within a constitutional monarchy; in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, "liberal" labels have been adopted by a variety of organisations spanning centre to right, reflecting Brazil's fragmented party system and shifting ideological coalitions. [1] [2]

Contents

Since the 1985 return to civilian rule, parties that academics classify as liberal or liberal-conservative have included the Liberal Front Party (later Democrats), the Brazilian Democratic Movement, the Brazilian Social Democracy Party, and more recently groups such as the New Party (NOVO); usage remains contested, with some "liberal" brands aligning with conservative or populist currents. [3] [4]

Etymology and definitions

In nineteenth-century Brazil the term liberal denoted adherents of representative constitutionalism who favoured greater provincial autonomy and limits on the Moderating Power of the emperor. Their rivals, the Conservatives, defended a stronger central state; the two labels—luzias and saquaremas—became shorthand for the main parliamentary blocs of the Second Reign (1840–1889). [5] [6] In the twentieth century, liberalismo often signified economic liberalisation—privatisation, trade opening, and fiscal adjustment—while civil-liberties and social-liberal currents coexisted within different parties and movements. Political scientists caution that party labels in Brazil frequently mask heterogeneous coalitions, so "liberal" parties may range from centrist to conservative-liberal, or even align with right-wing populism. [7] [8]

History

Independence and the imperial era (c. 1820s–1889)

Liberal language entered Brazilian politics during the Independence conjuncture, when merchants, professionals, and provincial elites in Rio de Janeiro and other ports linked market interests to projects for representative government and local autonomy. [9] [10] The 1824 Constitution proclaimed individual guarantees and a representative legislature while preserving slavery and creating the emperor's "Moderating Power" (Poder Moderador), an arrangement scholars describe as a paradoxical blend of liberal rights with hierarchical social order. [11] [12] Imperial "conservative liberalism" fused constitutional monarchy with a slave-based economy and, after the upheavals of the 1820s, privileged order and executive strength over mass participation. [13]

Joaquim Nabuco, pictured here in 1901, was a central figure in the development of liberalism in Brazil into an abolitionist movement. Joaquim nabuco 1901.jpg
Joaquim Nabuco, pictured here in 1901, was a central figure in the development of liberalism in Brazil into an abolitionist movement.

After 1831, a self-styled Liberal Party (the luzias) crystallised as one pole of parliamentary life against the Conservatives (the saquaremas). Liberals generally favoured decentralisation—reflected in the Additional Act of 1834—while recurrent schisms produced offshoots such as the Progressive League in the 1860s and a short-lived "New Liberal" current around Joaquim Nabuco in 1869. [14] Mid-century elites portrayed politics as "action, reaction, and transaction," using conciliation to contain radical and republican currents; critics likened the regime's party rotation to "Penelope's plot," forever doing and undoing under monarchical tutelage. [15] [16]

Contemporary British observers contrasted instability in Spanish American republics with Brazil's "flourishing constitutional, hereditary monarchy," a trope that legitimated strong crown prerogatives within a nominally liberal order. [17] Imperial liberalism's social limits were visible in contemporary defenses of slavery. Reporting a conversation with deputy Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcelos, the British traveler Robert Walsh recorded a civilizational justification for enslavement shared among conservative liberals. [18] From the 1870s, a "second generation" of liberals—including Nabuco—reframed abolition as essential to a liberal polity, linking emancipation to civic life and constitutionalism; debates over gradualist "liberal solutions" to slavery culminated in the 1888 abolition law. [19] [20] [21]

A constitutional flashpoint came in 1868, when José Thomaz Nabuco de Araújo's celebrated critique of the emperor's "neutral power" (the so-called "false syllogism") charged that legal prerogatives were eroding popular legitimacy; the fall of the monarchy in 1889 scattered liberals across emergent republican factions. [22] [23]

From the Old Republic to 1930

In the First Republic, liberal institutions coexisted uneasily with regional oligarchies and weak civic integration. Episodes such as the Canudos War (1896–97) and the 1904 Vaccine Revolt fed a diagnosis—one prominent in early twentieth-century debate—that representative forms had shallow social roots and needed active state-building to take hold. [24] [25]

Writers such as Euclides da Cunha popularised the view that the "backlands" lay outside the reach of republican liberalism, reinforcing calls for a project of national integration rather than a minimalist state. [26] At the local level, "coronelismo," a form of boss rule, channelled patronage and control over votes, hollowing out competitive representation even as formal institutions expanded. [27]

Amid these strains, a current of authoritarian social thought—associated with Alberto Torres, Azevedo Amaral, Oliveira Vianna and Alceu Amoroso Lima—attacked what it saw as imported, ill-fitting liberal doctrines. Emphasising colonial legacies and familial hierarchies, these authors recast clientelism and even coercion as functional tools of order, and argued for a tutelary, centralising state over mass democracy. [28] [29] [30]

Getulio Vargas (center) and his followers, here pictured during the Revolution of 1930, used a liberal name but a labor-centered populism during the Estado Novo regime. Revolucao de 1930 (cropped) restored.jpg
Getúlio Vargas (center) and his followers, here pictured during the Revolution of 1930, used a liberal name but a labor-centered populism during the Estado Novo regime.

The crisis of the oligarchic pact culminated in 1930, when the Aliança Liberal backed Getúlio Vargas; the subsequent regime increasingly subordinated federalism and party competition to central authority, a trajectory capped by the 1937 Estado Novo constitution, which "effaced the few remaining traces of liberalism." [31] [32]

The "Liberal Republic" (1945–1964)

Opposition to the Estado Novo coalesced around constitutional restoration—symbolised by the 1943 Manifesto dos Mineiros—and, after 1945, a competitive party system returned. [33] Much of the liberal–conservative camp rallied to the National Democratic Union (UDN), whose jurist-intellectuals blended classical-liberal economics, moral conservatism, and anti-populism; historians emphasise both the party's programmatic liberalism and the ambiguities of its institutional behaviour. [34] [35]

In parallel, the post-war policy debate pitted developmentalist planning against liberal orthodoxy in the 1944–45 Simonsen–Gudin controversy, foreshadowing mid-century disputes over the scope of the state in a mixed economy. [36] [37] Scholars often use "Liberal Republic" to describe 1945–64 because electoral competition and civil liberties were stronger than before or after, even as executive–legislative conflict and patronage limited programmatic coherence. [38] [39]

At the level of ideas, the period also sparked a thoroughgoing re-evaluation of Brazil's liberal tradition. Building on a republican reading of liberty, Raymundo Faoro argued that nineteenth-century "conservative liberalism" had helped entrench patronage and opened space for authoritarianism, and that a modern liberalism had to be refounded on anti-patrimonial, civic premises. [40]

Dictatorship and controlled opposition

The 1964 coup brought party dissolution and restrictions on civil liberties, but competitive arenas persisted and gradually widened during the regime's abertura. Analyses credit elections and legal opposition—especially the MDB—with carrying liberal-democratic norms that ultimately weakened authoritarian control. [41] [42] [43] [44]

Within regime discourse, some economic liberals invoked constitutionalist arguments to legitimise "order-first" governance—for example, Eugênio Gudin's adaptation of Benjamin Constant in interpreting the 1964 rupture—while technocrats such as Roberto Campos championed market reform from within state institutions, a stance that provoked debate over liberalism's relationship to authoritarian rule. [45] [46] [47]

The 1990s "neoliberal moment"

Redemocratisation reopened the space for programmatic liberalism while reframing its content. Writing in the late 1980s, José Guilherme Merquior advanced a "new meaning" of liberalism centred on substantive liberty and checks on bureaucratic overreach—an attempt, as Tosto reads it, to reconcile liberal institutions with democratic legitimacy after dictatorship. [48] Tosto also situates the rise of "neoliberalism" in Brazil after 1985: rather than reviving aristocratic tutelage, its advocates adapted nineteenth-century economic liberalism to democratic politics, casting markets as antidotes to patronage and corruption. [49]

Price stabilisation under the Real Plan (1994) ushered in a phase of privatisation, trade opening, and new regulatory frameworks, pursued through broad coalitions during the Cardoso administration (1995–2002). Contemporary studies map patterns of congressional support for reform and analyse how stabilisation politics enabled a liberalising policy mix within Brazil's fragmented party system. [50] [51]

In parallel, high-profile advocates such as Roberto Campos carried the case for market reform into electoral politics, illustrating how pro-market liberalism in the 1990s drew on both intellectual currents and the experience of technocratic governance. [52] [53]

Post-2003

From 2003, governments led by the Workers' Party (PT) combined the post-1999 macroeconomic "tripod"—primary fiscal surplus, inflation targeting, and a floating exchange rate—with expanded social policy and selective industrial activism. Analysts describe this as a Brazilian variant of neoliberalism that accepted market discipline while using state instruments (notably credit via BNDES and tax incentives) to pursue distributional and developmental goals. [54] During the commodity boom, welfare expansion and real-wage gains coexisted with rising formalisation and a stable macro framework, but growth decelerated after 2011 as the terms of trade worsened and targeted stimulus (2012–2014) coincided with fiscal deterioration and policy uncertainty. [55]

The political and economic crisis of 2015–2016 marked a sharp turn. Michel Temer's administration advanced fiscal retrenchment and structural reforms—most notably a constitutionally mandated federal spending cap (EC 95/2016) and a 2017 labour reform—framing them as prerequisites for restoring credibility and investment. Scholars situate these measures within a renewed liberalising agenda that prioritised price stability, fiscal rules, and market flexibility after the mid-2010s downturn. [56]

Under Jair Bolsonaro, economic policy mixed a market-orthodox platform—privatisation initiatives, deregulation drives, and a 2019 pension overhaul—with culture-war conservatism and confrontations with liberal-democratic norms. Research characterises this blend as a form of "populist authoritarian neoliberalism," in which pro-market reforms are pursued alongside illiberal rhetoric and institutional stress; the COVID-19 emergency response added a large, temporary cash-transfer programme that softened the recession's social impact without reorienting the underlying agenda. [57] [58]

General principles and variants

Principles

Brazilian liberalism is commonly defined by a cluster of commitments that recur across otherwise diverse currents:

Federal constitutionalism and the rule of law

Liberal actors prioritise limited, law-bound government, separation of powers, and judicial guarantees as the basic architecture for individual liberty and political competition; Brazilian theorists frame this as "freedom through form," in which institutions discipline personalism. [59] [60] [61]

Decentralisation and subnational autonomy are treated as vertical checks on concentrated power; liberals typically pair federal arrangements with impersonal rules (e.g., fiscal responsibility, independent regulators) to curb discretionary patronage. [62]

Individual rights and representative democracy

Brazilian liberal thought links negative liberty (non-interference) to legally protected freedoms of expression, association, conscience, and due process, often arguing that rights require enforceable institutional safeguards to be effective in a patrimonial context. [63]

Liberals defend competitive elections, party pluralism and alternation in office, coupled with checks on executive predominance; scholarship emphasises institutional design to reduce factionalism and clientelism. [64]

Private property and market coordination

Across classical, conservative-liberal, and social-liberal strands, liberals uphold private property, contract enforcement and competition as default mechanisms for allocating resources, differing over the scope of state correction and social policy. [65] [66]

Impersonal governance and protection of plural rights

A persistent theme is the critique of patrimonial/state-as-private-domain practices and the call for impersonal, rule-bound administration; this underpins liberal support for audit bodies, professionalised civil service and arm's-length regulators. [67]

Brazilian liberals commonly justify opposition to one-party or command economic models on the grounds of safeguarding pluralism, private property and civil liberties within a constitutional order. [68]

Variants

Classical liberalism

This current emphasises a limited state, monetary–fiscal orthodoxy, competitive markets and strong property rights. In mid-twentieth-century Brazil, economist Eugênio Gudin systematised laissez-faire principles and monetary discipline, while diplomat-economist Roberto Campos defended deregulation and privatisation both as technocrat and elected official; later, authors such as José Osvaldo de Meira Penna linked classical-liberal ideas to a sociological critique of patrimonialism. [69] [70] [71] [72]

Movement infrastructure—Instituto Liberal (1983–), the Fórum da Liberdade (since 1988) and, later, Instituto Mises Brasil—has promoted this agenda through publishing, conferences and campus activism. [73] [74] [75] Policy markers associated with this strand include post-1990 tariff cuts and removal of non-tariff barriers, large-scale privatisations and the creation of regulatory agencies, and disinflation cum central-bank credibility via the Real Plan architecture. [76] [77] [78] [79]

Conservative liberalism

This current pairs constitutionalism, anti-populism and anti-corruption with a market-friendly stance and moral conservatism; it treats a conservative social order as baseline and liberal economics as instrument for "order and modernisation." The post-1945 UDN is the canonical party family, led by jurist-intellectuals such as Afonso Arinos; scholars underline both its programmatic liberalism and ambiguities in practice amid entrenched local bossism (coronelismo). [80] [81]

In the redemocratisation era, centre-right coalitions drew on this lineage while operating in a fragmented party system where personalised leadership and the centrão logic of coalition-trading blur programmatic identities. [82] [83]

Policy markers include advocacy of executive constraint and judicial enforcement, rules-based budgeting and the 2000 Fiscal Responsibility Law, alongside deregulation and pro-investment packages couched in anti-corruption and modernisation frames. [84] [85]

Neoliberalism

In Brazilian usage, "neoliberalism" designates a policy package that seeks to stabilize prices, open the economy, shrink direct state ownership, and delegate regulation to arm's-length agencies while retaining targeted social protection. The first sustained attempt came under Fernando Collor (1990–1992), whose government dismantled price and trade controls, abolished sectoral institutes such as the Brazilian Coffee Institute, and cut average import tariffs steeply as part of a rapid external opening. [86] [87] [88] Contemporary studies document a fall in mean tariffs from roughly one-third of import value in 1990 to near the low-teens by the mid-1990s, alongside the removal of non-tariff barriers, which raised measured efficiency in tradables. [89]

Under Fernando Henrique Cardoso (1995–2002) the reform agenda was consolidated and politically normalized. The Real Plan's disinflation was paired with a privatization program (notably steel, mining and energy assets), telecoms restructuring via the 1997 General Telecommunications Law and the creation of Anatel, and the 2000 Fiscal Responsibility Law to hard-wire subnational and federal budget constraints. [90] [91] [92] [93] Political-science accounts characterize the Cardoso years as a coalition-built, market-reform phase supported by centrist and center-right parties, with congressional mapping showing cross-party backing for core bills. [94] [95]

Later governments returned to elements of the agenda amid shifting coalitions. The Michel Temer administration (2016–2018) adopted a federal spending cap of constitutional rank and overhauled labor law to promote contract flexibility; multilateral assessments describe these measures as part of a technocratic attempt to restore fiscal anchors and revive investment after the 2014–2016 recession. [96] [97] [98] Under Jair Bolsonaro (2019–2022), Economy Minister Paulo Guedes advanced a liberalizing platform that achieved a major pension reform in 2019, even as the presidency's illiberal discourse and later legislative bargaining shifted the government's center of gravity. [99] [100] Comparative political-economy overviews interpret the period from the mid-1990s onward as alternating waves of market reform and selective state activism, with the label "neoliberal" applied variably to distinct coalitions and instruments across presidencies. [101]

Scholarly surveys place these strands within longer debates over Brazil's institutional design and party coalitions. Some analysts highlight the role of centrist alliances in enabling liberalizing legislation while tempering the scope of reform; others stress how alternating waves of market opening and social inclusion have yielded hybrid outcomes rather than a single, continuous "neoliberal" model. [102] [103]

Social liberalism and "Third Way"

A parallel current—often described as "Third Way" or social liberal—sought to couple macroeconomic orthodoxy with expansion of social citizenship and managerial reform of the state. Analyses of the Cardoso presidency cast it as the paradigmatic case: market-friendly macro policy served as the platform for targeted transfers, education and health expansion, and new regulatory capacities in infrastructure, framed by a discourse of modernization and inclusion. [104] [105]

State-level experiments associated with the Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB) gave this mix durable administrative form. In São Paulo, Mário Covas (1995–2001) pursued fiscal adjustment and service-delivery innovations that later studies cite as emblematic of a managerial turn in state government. [106] In Minas Gerais, Aécio Neves (2003–2010) launched a branded "management shock" (choque de gestão) aimed at performance budgeting and fiscal consolidation; academic work treats it as a laboratory of post-Washington Consensus state reform at the subnational level. [107]

In the 2010s–2020s, centrist figures outside the PSDB also invoked a market-compatible social agenda. Press and policy profiles of Simone Tebet—longtime MDB politician and 2022 presidential contender, later minister of planning—depict a pro-reform centrist who supported fiscal responsibility rules and recent market-oriented changes while arguing for social balance and institutional stability. [108] [109]

A distinct "green liberal" strain associated with Marina Silva's 2014 presidential campaign has emphasized rule-of-law environmental governance alongside market mechanisms for decarbonization; interviews and policy analyses portray efforts to reconcile investment with conservation under changing coalition constraints. [110] [111]

Advocates often argue for "freedom through form": cabinet responsibility to the legislature, stronger programmatic coalitions and reduced presidential dominance via semi-parliamentary checks and redesigned agenda powers. This institutionalist current—associated with constitutional theorists such as Bolívar Lamounier—treats rules and arenas as the primary safeguards against personalism and patronage. [112] [113]

Right-libertarianism and anarcho-capitalism

A minor but visible current calls for radical minimisation—or abolition—of the state in favour of absolute property rights and voluntary exchange. In Brazil this network is concentrated in think-tanks and student activism, notably the Instituto Mises Brasil and circles around the Fórum da Liberdade; its agenda stresses low/flat taxes, sweeping deregulation, privatisation beyond utilities, and school choice. [114] [115]

Reception and impact

Liberal figures influenced major transitions. In the late empire, Joaquim Nabuco's abolitionist campaigning linked liberal constitutionalism to emancipationist goals. In the First Republic and early republic, jurist Ruy Barbosa gave liberal arguments for civil liberties and constitutional limits, shaping the 1890–91 foundational charter. In the democratic era after 1985, liberal and liberal-conservative parties participated in constitutional reform, stabilisation policies and market restructuring; their influence has alternated with that of the left and of non-programmatic "centrão" blocs. [116] [117]

Controversies and debates

Scholars and journalists note that contemporary usage of "liberal" in Brazil is fluid. Parties bearing the name—such as the PL—have, in recent years, anchored right-wing coalitions and combined economic liberalism with socially conservative or populist appeals; by contrast, technocratic or civic actors (e.g., NOVO; segments of Cidadania and civil movements) invoke classical-liberal or social-liberal platforms. [118] [119] [120] Debates also persist over whether liberal movements such as the MBL advanced a programmatic liberal agenda or primarily mobilised against incumbents; studies point to their central role in the 2015–2016 protests and evolving positioning thereafter. [121] [122]

See also

Further reading

Notes

    References

    1. ↑ Fausto, Boris (2014). A Concise History of Brazil (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-107-03620-8.
    2. ↑ Needell, Jeffrey D. (2006). The Party of Order: The Conservatives, the State, and Slavery in the Brazilian Monarchy, 1831–1871. Stanford University Press. ISBN   978-0-8047-5369-2.
    3. ↑ "Liberal Front Party (PFL)". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 11 August 2025. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    4. ↑ Zucco, Cesar; Power, Timothy J. (2024). "The Rightward Turn in Brazil Revisited: Mapping Ideological Conflict in a Fragmented Party System". Comparative Political Studies. 57 (13). doi:10.1177/00104140241237283 (inactive 26 August 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2025 (link)
    5. ↑ Needell, Jeffrey D. (2006). The Party of Order: The Conservatives, the State, and Slavery in the Brazilian Monarchy, 1831–1871. Stanford University Press. ISBN   978-0-8047-5369-2.
    6. ↑ Bentivoglio, Julio (2010). "Cultura política e consciência histórica no Brasil: uma contribuição ao debate historiográfico sobre a formação dos partidos políticos no Império". Diálogos. 14 (3). doi:10.4025/dialogos.v14i3.397 . Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    7. ↑ Zucco, Cesar; Power, Timothy J. (2024). "The Rightward Turn in Brazil Revisited: Mapping Ideological Conflict in a Fragmented Party System". Comparative Political Studies. doi:10.1177/00104140241237283 (inactive 26 August 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2025 (link)
    8. ↑ Bolognesi, Bruno; Ribeiro, Pedro Floriano; Codato, Adriano Nervo (2022). "Do Cleavage to "Low-Intensity" Ideology: A Socio-Ideological Classification of Brazilian Parties". DADOS. 65 (3). Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    9. ↑ de Salles Oliveira, Cecília Helena (2020). "A astúcia liberal: relações de mercado e projetos políticos no Rio de Janeiro, 1820–1824". Revista Angelus Novus (in Portuguese) (18) 199828 (2nd ed.). Alameda. doi:10.11606/issn.2179-5487.v13i18p199828 . Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    10. ↑ Guimarães, Lúcia Maria P.; Prado, Maria Emília, eds. (2001). O liberalismo no Brasil imperial: origens, conceitos e prática (in Portuguese). Revan. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    11. ↑ Vilbert, Jean (2024). "Slavery under Liberal Constitutionalism: Imperial Brazil's 1824 Constitution". Constitutional Studies. 9 (1). Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    12. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. p. 15. ISBN   978-0-7391-0985-4.
    13. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. pp. 15–16.
    14. ↑ Carvalho, José Murilo de (1982). "Political Elites and State Building: The Case of Nineteenth-Century Brazil" (PDF). Comparative Studies in Society and History . 24 (3): 378–399. doi:10.1017/S0010417500010057 . Retrieved 25 August 2025– via JSTOR.
    15. ↑ Guimarães, Lúcia Maria P.; Prado, Maria Emília, eds. (2001). O liberalismo no Brasil imperial: origens, conceitos e prática (in Portuguese). Revan.
    16. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. p. 23.
    17. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. p. 22, 24.
    18. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. pp. 19–20.
    19. ↑ Nabuco, Joaquim (1977). Abolitionism: the Brazilian antislavery struggle (in English and Portuguese). Translated by Conrad, Robert. University of Illinois Press (published 1910). Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    20. ↑ Ribeiro, F. N. (2024). "A "Liberal Solution" to Slave Emancipation: State Institutions and the End of Slavery in Brazil". Slavery & Abolition. doi:10.1080/0144039X.2023.2291348 . Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    21. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. pp. 26–27.
    22. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. pp. 25–26.
    23. ↑ Fausto, Boris (2014). A Concise History of Brazil (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-107-03620-8.
    24. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. pp. 48–51. ISBN   978-0-7391-0985-4.
    25. ↑ Skidmore, Thomas E. (1967). Politics in Brazil, 1930–1964: An Experiment in Democracy. Oxford University Press.
    26. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. pp. 49–51.
    27. ↑ Leal, Victor Nunes (2018). Coronelismo, enxada e voto. Cambridge University Press.
    28. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. pp. 53–58.
    29. ↑ Vianna, Oliveira (1938). Instituições políticas brasileiras (in Portuguese). Senado Federal. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    30. ↑ Schwartzman, Simon (1982). Bases do autoritarismo brasileiro (PDF) (in Portuguese). Editora Unicamp. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    31. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. pp. 79–80.
    32. ↑ Skidmore, Thomas E. (1967). Politics in Brazil, 1930–1964: An Experiment in Democracy. Oxford University Press.
    33. ↑ "Manifesto dos Mineiros (1943)". DHnet (in Portuguese). Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    34. ↑ Benevides, Maria Victoria de Mesquita (1981). A UDN e o udenismo: ambiguidades do liberalismo brasileiro (1945–1965) (in Portuguese). Paz e Terra.
    35. ↑ Chaloub, Jorge (2012). "O Brasil dos bacharéis: um discurso liberal udenista (1945–64)". Locus (in Portuguese). Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    36. ↑ A controvérsia do planejamento na economia brasileira (1944–45) (in Portuguese). Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada (IPEA). 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    37. ↑ Cannone, Hélio (2024). "Os liberalismos na crise do Estado Novo: a polêmica Simonsen x Gudin (1944–45)". CSOnline (in Portuguese). doi:10.34019/1981-2140.2023.45494 . Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    38. ↑ Skidmore, Thomas E. (1967). Politics in Brazil, 1930–1964: An Experiment in Democracy. Oxford University Press.
    39. ↑ Souza, Maria do Carmo Campello de (2006). Estado e partidos políticos no Brasil (1930–1964) (in Portuguese). Hucitec/UNESP. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    40. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. p. 78.
    41. ↑ Skidmore, Thomas E. (1988). The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964–1985. Oxford University Press.
    42. ↑ Stepan, Alfred, ed. (1989). Democratizing Brazil: Problems of Transition and Consolidation. Oxford University Press.
    43. ↑ Lamounier, Bolívar (1989). "in Stepan (ed.), Democratizing Brazil". Authoritarian Brazil Revisited: The Impact of Elections on the Abertura (PDF). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    44. ↑ Kinzo, Maria D'Alva G. (1988). Oposição e autoritarismo: gênese e trajetória do MDB (1966–1979) (in Portuguese). Vértice.
    45. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. p. 125.
    46. ↑ "Roberto Campos" (PDF). FGV CPDOC (in Portuguese). Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    47. ↑ Silva, Ricardo V. (2006). "Uma ditadura contra a República: política econômica e poder político em Roberto Campos" (PDF). Revista de Sociologia e Política (in Portuguese). 27: 29–45. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    48. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. pp. 111–112.
    49. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. p. 130.
    50. ↑ Flynn, Peter (1996). "Brazil: the politics of the Plano Real" (PDF). Third World Quarterly. 17 (3): 371–401. doi:10.1080/01436599615434 . Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    51. ↑ Power, Timothy J. (1998). "Brazilian Politicians and Neoliberalism: Mapping Support for Market-Oriented Reform in the Chamber of Deputies, 1991–1998". Latin American Research Review. 33 (1): 75–104. JSTOR   166454.
    52. ↑ Tosto, Milton L. (2005). The Meaning of Liberalism in Brazil. Lexington Books. p. 136.
    53. ↑ "Roberto Campos" (PDF). FGV CPDOC (in Portuguese). Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    54. ↑ Saad-Filho, Alfredo (2019). Varieties of Neoliberalism in Brazil (2003–2019) (PDF) (Report). CERIS/CEBRI. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    55. ↑ Saad-Filho, Alfredo (2019). Varieties of Neoliberalism in Brazil (2003–2019) (Report). CERIS/CEBRI.
    56. ↑ Saad-Filho, Alfredo (2019). Varieties of Neoliberalism in Brazil (2003–2019) (Report). CERIS/CEBRI.
    57. ↑ Deutsch, Stephanie (2021). "Populist authoritarian neoliberalism in Brazil: making Bolsonaro's hybrid project". Journal of Political Ecology. 28 (1): 841–858. doi:10.2458/jpe.2994 . Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    58. ↑ Saad-Filho, Alfredo (2019). Varieties of Neoliberalism in Brazil (2003–2019) (Report). CERIS/CEBRI.
    59. ↑ Merquior, José Guilherme (1991). O liberalismo: antigo e moderno (in Portuguese). Nova Fronteira.
    60. ↑ Lynch, C. E. C. (2011). "Freedom through form: Bolívar Lamounier and the liberal tradition in Brazil". Brazilian Political Science Review. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    61. ↑ Paim, Antônio (1998). História do liberalismo brasileiro (in Portuguese). Topbooks. ISBN   978-85-7475-013-2.
    62. ↑ Lynch, C. E. C. (2011). "Freedom through form". Brazilian Political Science Review.
    63. ↑ Merquior, José Guilherme (1991). O liberalismo: antigo e moderno (in Portuguese). Nova Fronteira.
    64. ↑ Brandão, Gildo Marçal (2007). "Linhagens do pensamento político brasileiro". DADOS (in Portuguese). Retrieved 25 August 2025.
    65. ↑ "Eugênio Gudin". Estudos Avançados (in Portuguese). 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2025.
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